Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jkksz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T08:13:14.758Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Berthierine from the Lower Cretaceous Clearwater Formation, Alberta, Canada

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 February 2024

Edward R. C. Hornibrook  and
Frederick J. Longstaffe
Edward R. C. Hornibrook
Affiliation:
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada N6A 5B7
Frederick J. Longstaffe
Affiliation:
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada N6A 5B7
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

Berthierine occurs as pore-linings of well crystallized laths of variable thickness in oil-sands of the Clearwater Formation, Alberta, Canada. Berthierine crystallized early in diagenesis within portions of a deltaic/estuarine complex dominated by brackish to fresh water.

Separates prepared using high gradient magnetic separation contain approximately equal amounts of monoclinic and orthohexagonal berthierine. Minor, but variable, quantities of inseparable, iron-rich impurities mainly consist of chamosite Ib and IIb, and Fe-rich smectitic clays.

Clearwater Formation berthierine has a range of chemical compositions that differ from those reported for most other berthierines. The SiO2 (27-35 wt%), Fe2O3 (5-8 wt%) and Al2O3 (16-18 wt%) contents for Clearwater Formation berthierine fall between values normally reported for berthierine and odinite. The average structural formula of five samples studied in detail is (Fe2+1.01Al0.82Mg0.46Fe3+0.28 Mn<0.01□0.43)(Si1.74Al0.26)O5(OH)4, where □ represents vacancies in the octahedral sheet. The large number of vacancies in the octahedral sheet implies a di-trioctahedral character for this clay. Our results also suggest that a series of compositions can occur between ideal berthierine and odinite end-members.

Berthierine has been preserved within the Clearwater Formation because temperatures during diagenesis did not exceed 70°C, and perhaps also because hydrocarbon emplacement limited subsequent transformation of berthierine to other phases, such as chamosite. Intense, early diagenetic, microbial activity and/ or the strongly reducing environment created by later emplacement of hydrocarbons may be responsible for the Fe2+/Fe3+ ratio of the berthierine. Because of these conditions, this ratio may have changed since initial clay crystallization. The Clearwater Formation occurrence of grain-coating Fe-rich clays provides valuable insights into possible relationships between the Fe-serpentine minerals, odinite and berthierine, and supports an important role for these phases as precursors to the grain-coating and pore-lining Fe-chlorite (chamosite) that is so common in ancient sandstones, including many hydrocarbon reservoirs.

Keywords

BerthierineChamositeDiagenesisNeoformationOdiniteOil Sands
Type
Research Article
Information
Clays and Clay Minerals , Volume 44 , Issue 1 , February 1996 , pp. 1 - 21
Copyright
Copyright © 1996, The Clay Minerals Society

References

Ahn, J.H. and Peacor, D.R.. 1985. Transmission electron microscopic study of diagenetic chlorite in Gulf Coast argillaceous sediments. Clays & Clay Miner 33: 228–236.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amouric, M., Gianetto, I. and Proust, D.. 1988. 7, 10, and 14 Å mixed-layer phyllosilicates studied structurally by TEM in pelitic rocks of the Piemontese zone (Venezuela). Bull Mineral 111: 29–37.Google Scholar
Arima, M., Fleet, M.A. and Barnett, R.L.. 1985. Titanian berthierine: A Ti-rich serpentine-group mineral from the Picton ultra-mafic dyke, Ontario. Can Mineral 23: 213–220.Google Scholar
Ayalon, A. and Longstaffe, F.J.. 1988. Oxygen isotope studies of diagenesis and pore-water evolution in the western Canada sedimentary basin: evidence from the Upper Cretaceous basal Belly River sandstone, Alberta. J Sed Petrol 58: 489–505.Google Scholar
Bailey, S.W.. 1980. Structures of layer silicates. In: Brindley, G.W., Brown, G., editors. Crystal Structures of Clay Minerals and their X-ray Identification. Washington: Mineralogical Society of America. p 2–123.Google Scholar
Bailey, S.W.. 1988a. Polytypism of 1: 1 layer silicates. In: Bailey, S.W., editor. Hydrous Phyllosilicates (exclusive of micas). Washington: Mineralogical Society of America. p 9–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bailey, S.W.. 1988b. Structures and compositions of other trioctahedral 1: 1 phyllosilicates. In: Bailey, S.W., editor. Hydrous Phyllosilicates (exclusive of micas). Washington: Mineralogical Society of America. p 169–188.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bailey, S.W.. 1988c. Odinite, a new dioctahedral-trioctahedral Fe3+-rich 1: 1 clay mineral. Clay Miner 23: 237–247.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bancroft, G.M.. 1973. Mössbauer Spectroscopy: An introduction for inorganic chemists and geochemists. New York: John Wiley and Sons.Google Scholar
Beaumont, C., Boutilier, R., Mackenzie, A.S. and Rullkotter, J.. 1985. Isomerization and aromatization of hydrocarbons and the paleothermometry and burial history of the Alberta Foreland Basin. Am Assoc Pet Geol Bull 69: 546–566.Google Scholar
Berner, R.A.. 1981. A new geochemical classification of sedimentary environments. J Sed Petrol 51: 359–365.Google Scholar
Bhattacharyya, D.P.. 1983. Origin of berthierine in ironstones. Clays & Clay Miner 31: 173–182.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bigeleisen, J., Pearlman, M.L. and Prosser, H.C.. 1952. Conversion of hydrogenic materials to hydrogen for isotopic analysis. Anal Chem 24: 1356–1357.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brindley, G.W.. 1949. Mineralogy and crystal structure of chamosite. Nature 164: 319–320.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brindley, G.W.. 1951. The crystal structures of some chamosite minerals. Mineral Mag 29: 502–525.Google Scholar
Brindley, G.W.. 1961. Kaolin, serpentine, and kindred minerals. In: Brown, G., editor. The X-Ray Identification and Crystal Structures of Clay Minerals. London: Mineralogical Society (Clay Minerals Group). p 51–131.Google Scholar
Brindley, G.W.. 1981. Structures and chemical compositions of clay minerals. In: Longstaffe, F.J., editor. Short Course in Clays and the Resource Geologist Calgary: Mineralogical Association of Canada. p 1–21.Google Scholar
Brindley, G.W.. 1982. Chemical compositions of berthierines—A review. Clays & Clay Miner 30: 153–155.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brindley, G.W. and Youell, R.F.. 1953. Ferrous chamosite and ferric chamosite. Mineral Mag 30: 57–70.Google Scholar
Brindley, G.W., Bailey, S.W., Faust, G.T., Forman, S.A. and Rich, C.I.. 1968. Report of the Nomenclature Committee (1966-67) of the Clay Minerals Society. Clays & Clay Miner 16: 322–324.Google Scholar
Clayton, C.. 1992. School of Geological Sciences. Kingston University, Penrhyn Road, Kingston upon Thames, Surrey, United Kingdom KT1 2EE.Google Scholar
Clayton, R.N. and Mayeda, T.K.. 1963. The use of bromine penta-fluoride in the extraction of oxygen from oxides and silicates for isotopic analysis. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 27: 43–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coey, J.M.D., Ballet, O., Moukarika, A. and Soubeyroux, J.L.. 1981. Magnetic properties of sheet silicates: 1: 1 layer minerals. Phys Chem Miner 7: 141–148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Craig, H.. 1961. Isotopic variations in meteoric waters. Science 133: 1702–1703.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Curtis, C.D.. 1985. Clay mineral precipitation and transformation during burial diagenesis. Phil Trans Roy Soc Lond A315: 91–105.Google Scholar
Curtis, C.D.. 1990. The critical importance of diagenetic zones in determining sediment mineralogy. Geol Assoc Can Prog Abstr 15: A29.Google Scholar
Curtis, C.D. and Spears, D.A.. 1968. The formation of sedimentary iron minerals. Econ Geol 24: 257–270.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dean, R.S. and Nahnybida, C.. 1985. Authigenic trioctahedral clay minerals coating Clearwater Formation sand grains in Cold Lake, Alberta—extended abstract. Appl Clay Sci 1: 237–238.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farmer, V.C.. 1974. The layer silicates. In: Farmer, V.C., editor. The Infrared Spectra of Minerals. Monograph 4. London: Mineralogical Society.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Folk, R.L.. 1974. Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks. Austin, Texas: Hemphill Publishing Company. 170p.Google Scholar
Foster, M.D.. 1962. Interpretation of the composition and a classification of the chlorites. US Geol Surv Prof Pap 414A: 1–33.Google Scholar
Hacquebard, P.A.. 1977. Rank of coal as an index of organic metamorphism for oil and gas in Alberta. In: Deroo, G., Powell, T., Tissot, B., McCrossan, R., editors. The Origin and Migration of Petroleum in the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin, Alberta Geol Surv Can Bull 262: 11–22.Google Scholar
Hallimond, A.F., Harvey, C.O. and Bannister, I.A.. 1939. On the relation of chamosite and daphnite to the chlorite group. Mineral Mag 25: 441–465.Google Scholar
Harrison, D.B., Glaister, R.P. and Nelson, H.W.. 1981. Reservoir description of the Clearwater oil sand Cold Lake, Alberta Canada. In: Meyer, R.F., Steele, C.T., editors. Proc 1st Int Conf on the Future of Heavy Crude and Tar Sands. New York: McGraw-Hill, p 264–279.Google Scholar
Hillier, S.. 1994. Pore-lining chlorites in siliciclastic reservoir sandstones: electron microprobe, SEM and XRD data, and implications for their origin. Clay Miner 29: 665–679.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hillier, S. and Velde, B.. 1992. Chlorite interstratified with a 7 Å mineral: an example from offshore Norway and possible implications for the interpretation of the composition of diagenetic chlorites. Clay Miner 27: 475–486.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Humphreys, B., Smith, S.A. and Strong, G.E.. 1989. Authigenic chlorite in late Triassic sandstones from the Central Graben, North Sea. Clay Miner 24: 427–444.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Humphreys, B., Kemp, S.J., Lott, G.K., Bermanto, , Dharmayanti, D.A. and Samsori, I.. 1994. Origin of grain-coating chlorite by smectite transformation: An example from Miocene sandstones, North Sumatra back-arc basin, Indonesia. Clay Miner 29: 681–692.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hutcheon, I., Abercrombie, H., Putnam, P., Gardner, R. and Krouse, R.. 1989. Sedimentology and diagenesis of the Clearwater Formation at Tucker Lake. Bull Can Pet Geol 37: 83–97.Google Scholar
Iijima, A. and Matsumoto, R.. 1982. Berthierine and chamosite in coal measures of Japan. Clays & Clay Miner 30: 264–274.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jahren, J.S. and Aagaard, P.. 1989. Compositional variations in diagenetic chlorites and illites, and relationships with formation-water chemistry. Clay Miner 24: 157–170.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
James, H.E.. 1966. Chemistry of the iron-rich sedimentary rocks. US Geol Surv Prof Pap 440W: 1-60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jiang, W.T., Peacor, D.R. and Slack, J.F.. 1992. Microstructures, mixed layering, and polymorphism of chlorite and retrograde berthierine in the Kidd Creek Massive sulfide deposit, Ontario. Clays & Clay Miner 40: 501–514.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kantorowicz, J.D., Bryant, I.D. and Dawans, J.M.. 1987. Controls on the geometry and distribution of carbonate cements in Jurassic sandstones: Bridport Sands, southern England and Viking Group, Troll Field, Norway. In: Marshall, J.D., editor. Diagenesis of Sedimentary Sequences. Geol Soc Spec Publ 36: 103–118.Google Scholar
Kodama, H. and Foscolos, A.E.. 1981. Occurrence of berthierine in Canadian Arctic desert soils. Can Mineral 19: 279–283.Google Scholar
Kyser, T.K. and O'Neil, J.R.. 1984. Hydrogen isotope systematics of submarine basalts. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 48: 2123–2133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, H.H. and Peacor, D.R.. 1983. Interlayer transitions in phyllo-silicates of Martinsburg shale. Nature 303: 608–609.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Longstaffe, F.J.. 1986. Oxygen isotope studies of diagenesis in the basal Belly River sandstone, Pembina I-Pool, Alberta. J Sed Petrol 56: 78–88.Google Scholar
Longstaffe, F.J.. 1989. Stable isotopes as tracers in clastic diagenesis. In: Hutcheon, I.E., editor. Short Course in Burial Diagenesis. Montreal: Mineralogical Association of Canada 15: 201–277.Google Scholar
Longstaffe, F.J.. 1990. An introduction to clastic diagenesis. In: Harrison, W.B. III, editor. Introduction to Diagenesis, Methods and Applications. Ont Pet Inst Short Course. p 1–56.Google Scholar
Longstaffe, F.J.. 1993. Meteoric water and sandstone diagenesis in the western Canada sedimentary basin. In: Horbury, A.D., Robinson, A.G., editors. Diagenesis and Basin Development. Am Assoc Petrol Geol Study Geol 36: p 49–68.Google Scholar
Longstaffe, F.J.. 1994. Stable isotope constraints on sandstone diagenesis in the western Canada sedimentary basin. In: Parker, A., Sellwood, B., editors. Quantitative Diagenesis: Recent Developments and Applications to Reservoir Geology. NATO ASI Series: Kluwer Academic Publishers. p 223–274.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Longstaffe, F.J. and Ayalon, A.. 1990. Hydrogen-isotope geochemistry of diagenetic clay minerals from Cretaceous sandstones, Alberta, Canada: evidence for exchange. Appl Geo-chem 5: 657–668.Google Scholar
Longstaffe, F.J., Ayalon, A. and Racki, M.. 1989a. Natural diagenesis of Clearwater Formations reservoirs in the Cold Lake area, Alberta, Part I: Mineralogical studies. Can Soc Pet Geol Annu Meet Prog Abstr. p 130.Google Scholar
Longstaffe, F.J., Ayalon, A. and Racki, M.. 1989b. Natural diagenesis of Clearwater Formation reservoirs in the Cold Lake area, Alberta, Part II: Stable isotope studies of water/mineral interaction. Can Soc Pet Geol Annu Meet Prog Abstr. p 142.Google Scholar
Longstaffe, F.J., Racki, M.A. and Ayalon, A.. 1992. Stable isotope studies of diagenesis in berthierine-bearing oil sands, Clearwater Formation, Alberta. In: Kharaka, Y.K., Maest, A.S., editors. Water Rock Interaction. Vol. 2: Moderate and High Temperature Environments, Proc 7th Int Symp on Water-Rock Interaction Rotterdam: AA Balkema. p 955–958.Google Scholar
Longstaffe, F.J. and Tazaki, K.. Department of Earth Sciences, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada N6A 5B7. Unpublished data.Google Scholar
Marumo, K. and Longstaffe, F.J.. Department of Earth Sciences, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada N6A 5B7. Unpublished data.Google Scholar
MacKenzie, K.J.D. and Berezowski, R.M.. 1984. Thermal and Möss-bauer studies of iron-containing hydrous silicates. V. Berthierine. Thermochim Acta 74: 291–312.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nedwell, D.B.. 1984. The input and mineralization of organic carbon in anaerobic aquatic sediments. In: Marshall, K.C., editor. Advanced Microbial Ecology 7. New York: Plenum. p 93–132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nikitina, A.P. and Zvyagin, B.B.. 1972. Origin and crystal structure features of clay minerals from the lateritic bauxites in the European part of the USSR. Proc Int Clay Conf Madrid. p 227–233.Google Scholar
Odin, G.S., editor. 1988. Green Marine Clays: Developments in Sedimentology 45. Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Odin, G.S. and Giresse, P.. 1972. Formation de minéraux phylliteux (berthiérine, smectites, glauconite ouverte) dans les sédiments du Golfe de Guinée. CR Acad Sci Paris 274: 177–180.Google Scholar
Odin, G.S. and Létolle, R.. 1980. Glauconitization and phosphatization environments: a tentative comparison. Soc Econ Paleontol Mineral Spec Publ 29: 227–237.Google Scholar
Odin, G.S. and Matter, A.. 1981. De glauconiarum origine. Sedimentol 28: 611–641.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Porrenga, D.H.. 1965. Chamosite in recent sediments of the Niger and Orinoco Deltas. Geol Mijnbouw 44: 400–403.Google Scholar
Porrenga, D.H.. 1967. Glauconite and chamosite as depth indicators in the marine environment. Mar Geol 5: 495–501.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prentice, M.E. and Wightman, D.M.. 1987. Mineralogy of the Clearwater Formation, Cold Lake oil sands: Implications for enhanced oil recovery. Alberta Geol Surv Rep. p 1–41.Google Scholar
Putnam, P.E. and Pedskalny, M.A.. 1983. Provenance of Clearwater Formation reservoir sandstones, Cold Lake, Alberta, with comments on feldspar composition. Bull Can Pet Geol 31: 148–160.Google Scholar
Rohrlich, V., Price, N.B. and Calvert, S.E.. 1969. Chamosite in the recent sediments of Loch Etive, Scotland. J Sed Petrol 39: 624–631.Google Scholar
Savin, S.M. and Lee, M.. 1988. Isotopic studies of phyllosilicates. In: Bailey, S.W., editor. Hydrous Phyllosilicates (exclusive of micas). Washington: Mineralogical Society of America. p 189–224.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schoen, R.. 1964. Clay minerals of the Silurian Clinton ironstones, New York State. J Sed Petrol 34: 855–863.Google Scholar
Serna, C.J., Velde, B.D. and White, J.L.. 1977. Infrared evidence of order-disorder in amesites. Am Min 62: 296–303.Google Scholar
Siehl, A. and Thein, J.. 1989. Minette-type ironstones: In: Young TP, Taylor WEG, editors. Phanerozoic Ironstones. Geol Soc Spec Publ 46. p 175–193.Google Scholar
Stevens, I.G. and Stevens, V.E.. 1972. Mössbauer Effect Data Index, Covering the 1970 Literature. IFI/Plenum Data Corporation.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylor, K.G.. 1990. Berthierine from the non-marine Wealden (Early Cretaceous) sediments of south-east England. Clay Miner 25: 391–399.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tellier, K.E., Hluchy, M.M., Walker, J.R. and Reynolds, R.C. Jr. 1988. Application of high gradient magnetic separation (HGMS) to structural and compositional studies of clay mineral mixtures. J Sed Petrol: 761–763.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Houten, F.B. and Purucker, M.E.. 1984. Glauconitic peloids and chamositic ooids—favorable factors, constraints, and problems. Earth Sci Rev 20(3): 211–243.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Velde, B., Raoult, J.F. and Leikine, M.. 1974. Metamorphosed berthierine pellets in Mid-Cretaceous rocks from northeastern Algeria. J Sed Petrol 44: 1275–1280.Google Scholar
Vennemann, T.W. and O'Neil, J.R.. 1993. A simple and inexpensive method of hydrogen isotope and water analyses of minerals and rocks based on zinc reagent. Chem Geol (Isot Geosci Sect) 103: 227–234.Google Scholar
Vigrass, L.W.. 1968. Geology of Canadian heavy oil sands. Amer Assoc Petr Geol Bull 52: 1984–1999.Google Scholar
Visser, K., Dankers, P.H.M., Leckie, D. and Van Der Marel, A.G.P.. 1988. Mineralogy and geology of the Clearwater reservoir sands in the Wolf Lake Area, Cold Lake, Alberta. In: Meyer, R.F., editor. Proc 3rd UNITAR/UNDP Int Conf on Heavy Crude and Tar Sands New York: McGraw-Hill. p 119–133.Google Scholar
Walker, J.R. and Thompson, G.R.. 1990. Structural variations in chlorite and illite in a diagenetic sequence from the Imperial Valley, California. Clays Clay Miner 38: 315–321.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wightman, D.M. and Berezniuk, T.. 1986. Resource characterization and depositional modelling of the Clearwater Formation, Cold Lake oil sands deposit, east-central Alberta. In: Westhoff, J.D., Marchant, L.C., editors. Proc 1986 Tar Sands Symp Jackson, Wyoming: ARC Contribution No. 1452.Google Scholar
Wightman, D.M., Rottenfüsser, B., Kramers, J. and Harrison, R.. 1989. Geology of the Alberta oil sands deposits. In: Heplet, L.G., Hsi, C., editors. AOSTRA Technical Handbook on Oil Sands, Bitumens and Heavy Oils. AOSTRA Tech Publ Ser 6. p 1–9.Google Scholar
Yershova, Z.P., Nikitina, A.P., Perfil'ev Yu, D. and Babeshkin, A.M.. 1976. Study of chamosites by gamma-resonance (Mössbauer) spectroscopy. In: Bailey, S.W., editor. Proc Int Clay Conf, Mexico City, 1975. Wilmette, Illinois: Applied Publishing. p 211–219.Google Scholar
Yershova, K.S., Kuzemkina Ye, N., Dubakina, L.S., Solntseva, L.S., Tkacheva, T.V., Umnova Ye, G. and Shcherbak, O.V.. 1982. Chamosite, a supergene iron-aluminum 7 A-silicate. Dokl Acad Sci USSR Earth Sci Sect 265: 123–125.Google Scholar
Youell, R.F.. 1955. Mineralogy and crystal structure of chamosite. Nature 176: 560–561.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Youell, R.F.. 1958a. Isomorphous replacement in the kaolin group of minerals. Nature 181: 557–558.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Youell, R.F.. 1958b. A clay mineralogical study of the ironstone at Easton Neston, Northamptonshire. Clay Min Bull 3: 264–269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhou, J.. 1995. Alberta Research Council. Oil, Sand and Hudrocarbon Recovery. P.O. Box 8330 Station F, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6H 5X2.Google Scholar