Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gxg78 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T21:22:08.710Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Good, the Bad, or the Godless Society?: Danish “Church People” and the Modern Welfare State

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 November 2013

Klaus Petersen  and
Jørn Henrik Petersen
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This contribution analyzes the views held by Danish and Norwegian church people regarding the welfare state, as expressed in the period when the general debate on the welfare state culminated in both countries. Generally speaking, religion played a relatively limited role in international welfare state research, which can be referred to as “blind to religion.” Tough socio-economic variables, well-established political actors, and government interests dominate the field. There are examples of religion as one among many variables, but when it has been ascribed explanatory value, it predominantly has been in relation to southern and continental European welfare models, because the focus has been on Catholicism. In recent years, the frequently mentioned “cultural turn” has made its entrance into comparative welfare research; yet, even then culture and religion are often assigned a modest role in “the black box,” which is invoked when the “harder” data are insufficient. Most recently, historians and church historians have launched a discussion on the Lutheran Nordic welfare state, but so far this discussion has not analyzed empirically the role of the church in the golden age of the welfare state. In this article, we go directly to those involved and examine what the church actors really felt about the post-war welfare state.

Type
Articles
Information
Church History , Volume 82 , Issue 4 , December 2013 , pp. 904 - 940
Copyright
Copyright © American Society of Church History 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 See for example Koven, Seth and Michel, Sonya, eds., Mothers of a New World: Maternalist Politics and the Origins of the Welfare State (New York: Routledge, 1993)Google Scholar especially chapters 1, 3 and 10; Bock, Gisela and Thane, Pat, eds., Maternity & Gender Policies: Women and the Rise of the European Welfare States 1880s–1950s (London: Routledge, 1991)Google Scholar; Brown, Dorothy Marie and McKeown, Elizabeth, The Poor Belong to Us: Catholic Charities and American Welfare (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

2 Opielka, Michael, “Religiöse Werte im Wohlfahrtsstaat, Entstaatlichung und soziale Sicherheit,” in Verhandlungen des 31. Kongresses der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Soziologie in Leipzig 2002 (Opladen: Leske and Budrich, 2003)Google Scholar.

3 Castles, Francis G., “On Religion and Public Policy: Does Catholicism make a difference?,” European Journal of Political Research 25, no. 1 (1994): 19–40CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wilensky, Harold, The Welfare State and Equality. Structural and Ideological Roots of Public Expenditure (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975)Google Scholar; Opielka, Michael, “Christian Foundations of the Welfare State: Strong cultural values in comparative perspectives,” in Culture and Welfare State: Values and Social Policy in Comparative Perspective, eds. van Oorschot, Wim, Opielka, Michael, and Pfau-Effinger, Birgit (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2008), 89–114Google Scholar; Kersbergen, Kees van, Social Capitalism: A Study of Christian Democracy and the Welfare State (London: Routledge, 1995)Google Scholar; Morgan, Kimberley J., “Forging the Frontiers between State, Church, and Family: Religious Cleavages and the Origins of Early Childhood Education and Care Policies in France, Sweden and Germany,” Politics & Society 30, no. 1 (2002): 113–148CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Philip Manow, “The Good, the Bad and the Ugly: Esping-Andersen's Regime Typology and the Religious Roots of the Western Welfare State,” Working Paper 04/3 (Max Planck Institute for the Study of Societies: 2004), http://www.mpifg.de/pu/workpap/wp04-3/wp04-3.html; Emmenegger, Patrick, “Catholicism, Job Security Regulations and Female Employment: A Micro-Level Analysis of Esping-Andersen's Social Catholicism Thesis,” Social Policy & Administration 44, no. 1 (2010): 20–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Seeleib-Kaiser, Martin, van Dyk, Silke, and Roggenkamp, Martin, Party Politics and Social Welfare: Comparing Christian and Social Democracy in Austria, Germany and the Netherlands (Cheltenham, U.K.: Edward Elgar, 2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

4 van Kersbergen, Kees and Manow, Philip, eds., Religion, Class Coalitions and Welfare States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2009), 210–235CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

5 See: Knudsen, Tim, “Tilblivelsen af den universalistiske velfærdsstat” in Den nordiske protestantisme og velfærdsstaten, ed. Knudsen, Tim (Århus: Århus Universitetsforlag, 2000), 20–64Google Scholar; idem, “De nordiske statskirker og velfærdsstaten,” in 13 historier om den danske velfærdsstat, ed. Petersen, Klaus (Odense: Syddansk Universitetsforlag, 2003), 37–47Google Scholar.

6 Stenius, Henrik, “The Good Life is a Life of Conformity,” in The Cultural Construction of Norden, eds. Sørensen, Øystein and Stråht, Bo (Oslo: Scandinavian University Press, 1997), 161–171Google Scholar. Furthermore, some researchers have problematized the idea of a “Lutheran welfare model” by pointing to the importance of Christian socio-political thinking in the medieval period. See for example: Jensen, Carsten Selch, “Hvad nyt? En velfærdsstat med middelalderlige rødder,” in 13 historier om den danske velfærdstat, 15–26Google Scholar.

7 Kærgård, Niels, “Tre økonomiske professorers teologi,” Kirkehistoriske Samlinger VII.8.C (1997), 129–197Google Scholar; Kærgård, Niels, “Den lille kristne nationalstat: historie og dilemmaer,” Velfærdsstat og kirke, eds. Schørring, Jens H. and Bak, Jens T. (Copenhagen: Anis, 2005): 35–51Google Scholar.

8 Malmgart, Liselotte, “To reaktioner på den danske socialreform i 1933,” in Velfærdsstat og Kirke, 53–68Google Scholar; Christensen, Hilda Rømer, Mellem backfische og pæne piger. Køn og kultur i KFUK 1883–1940 (Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press 1995)Google Scholar; Markkola, Pirjo, ed., Gender and Vocation: Women, Religion and Social Change in the Nordic Countries (Helsinki: SKS, 2000)Google Scholar; Lützen, Karin, Byen tæmmes. Kernefamilie, sociale reformer og velgørenhed i 1800-tallets København (Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1998)Google Scholar.

9 Svenstrup, Tyge, “Den etiske socialisme. Biskop Martensens samfundssyn i 1870erne,” in Den nordiske protestantisme og velfærdsstaten, 98–123Google Scholar; Petersen, Jørn Henrik and Petersen, Lis Holm, “Gensidig eller ensidig. Om Løgstrups etiske fordring og velfærdsstatens normative grundlag,” in Livtag med den etiske fordring, eds. Bugge, David and Sørensen, Peter Aaboe (Århus: Århus Universitetsforlag, 2007), 209–230Google Scholar.

10 Feldmann, Horst, “Protestantism, Labor Force Participation, and Employment across Countries,” American Journal of Economics and Sociology 66, no. 4 (2007): 795–816CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

11 Sørensen, Aage B., “On Kings, Pietism and Rent-seeking in Scandinavian Welfare States,” Acta Sociologica 41 (1998): 363–375CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

12 Markkola, Pirjo, “The Lutheran Nordic Welfare States,” in Beyond Welfare State Models: Transnational Historical Perspectives on Social Policy, eds. Kettunen, Pauli and Petersen, Klaus (London: Edward Elgar, 2010), 102–118Google Scholar; Andersen, Mie and Rosenbeck, Bente, “Ligestilling, ægteskab og religion,” Kvinder, køn og forskning 4 (2006): 17–31Google Scholar; Melby, Kari, Pylkkänen, Anu, Rosenbeck, Bente, and Wetterberg, Christina Carlsson, Äktenskap och politik i Norden ca. 1850–1930 (Lund: Makadame 2006)Google Scholar; Østergaard, Uffe, “Lutheranismen, danskheden og velfærdsstaten,” in 13 historier om den danske velfærdsstat, 27–36Google Scholar; Kaspersen, Lars Bo and Lindvall, Johannes, “Why No Religious Politics? The Secularization of Poor Relief and Primary Education in Denmark and Sweden,” Archives européennes de sociologie, 44 (2008): 119–143CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

13 See Baldwin, Peter, “Riding the Subways of Gemeinschaft,” Acta Sociologica 41 (1998): 378–380CrossRefGoogle Scholar for a similar argument.

14 See Kahl, Sigrun, “Religious Doctrines and Poor Relief: A Different Causal Pathway,” in Religion, Class Coalitions and Welfare States, 267–298Google Scholar; idem, The Religious Foundations of the Welfare State: Poverty Regimes, Unemployment, and Welfare-to-Work in Europe and the United States (PhD diss. Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 2006).

15 Kahl, Religious Foundations, 77.

16 Numerous German socio-political texts thus refer explicitly to Catholic social teaching or Catholic social doctrines. See: Schoen, Ursula, Subsidiarität. Bedeutung und Wandel des Begriffs in der katholischen Soziallehre und in der deutschen Sozialpolitik. Eine diakoniewissenschaftliche Untersuchung (Neukirchen: Neukirchen-Vluyn, 1998)Google Scholar; von Nell-Breuning, Oswald, Soziale Sicherheit. Zu Grundfragen der Sozialordnung aus christlicher Verantwortung (Freiburg: Herder Verlag, 1979)Google Scholar; idem, Baugesteze der Gesellsschaft. Solidarität und Subsidarität (Freiburg: Herder Verlag, 1990)Google Scholar.

17 Thorkildsen, Dag, “Religious Identity and Nordic Identity,” in The Cultural Construction of Norden, 144Google Scholar; Andersen, Svend, “Religion og social sammenhæng. Kristendommen og den moderne velfærdsstat. Et teologisk perspektiv,” Religionsvidenskabeligt Tidsskrift 48 (2006): 25–34Google Scholar.

18 This is well established in the welfare state research. See for example Kuhnle, Stein and Sander, Anne, “The Emergence of the Western Welfare State,” in The Oxford Handbook of the Welfare State, eds. Castles et al. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 61–80Google Scholar.

19 Esping-Andersen, Gøsta, Politics against Markets: The Social Democratic Road to Power (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985)Google Scholar; Petersen, Klaus, Legitimität und Krise. Die politische Geschichte des dänischen Wohlfahrtsstaates 1945–1953 (Berlin: Berlin Verlag, 1998)Google Scholar.

20 Norman, E. R., Church and Society in England 1770–1970, A Historical Study (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976)Google Scholar; Tønnesen, Aud V., “Et trygt og godt hjem for alle”? Kirkelederes kritikk av velferdsstaten etter 1945 (Trondheim: Tapir, 2000)Google Scholar; Grimley, Mathhew, Citizenship, Community and the Church of England: Liberal Anglican Theories of the State between the Wars (Oxford: Clarendon Press 2004)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Anderson, Karin, “The Church as a Nation? The Role of Religion in the Development of the Swedish Welfare State,” in Religion, Class Coalitions and Welfare State, 210–235Google Scholar.

21 See Petersen, Legitimität und Krise. In addition, this investigation is based on an examination of a considerable amount of textual material. For the general media picture, we base ourselves on a collection of newspaper clippings in Henning Friis's private archive (The Danish National Archive), an examination of Dansk Kronikindeks and bibliotek.dk as well as a number of more specific searches. For the more internal church debate, we have reviewed a number of key periodicals such as Præsteforeningens Blad, Tidehverv, Indre Missions Tidende, and Dansk Kirkeliv.

22 The Catholic Church is a very small religious minority in Denmark. For a discussion of the Catholic Church and the welfare state in Britain, see Coman, Peter, Catholics and the Welfare State (London: Longmann, 1977)Google Scholar.

23 The following is based on Bach-Nielsen, Carsten and Schjørring, Jens Holger, Kirkens historie. vol. 2 (Copenhagen: Hans Reitzels Forlag, 2012)Google Scholar.

24 Rode, Hans Henrik and Petersen, Klaus, “Kirke og stat i 1600-tallet,” Kirkehistoriske Samlinger (1996), 63–100Google Scholar.

25 Knudsen, “Tilblivelsen af den universalistiske velfærdsstat” 20–64.

26 Danish Constitution of 1849, chapter 1, § 3. See: http://danmarkshistorien.dk/leksikon-og-kilder/vis/materiale/danmarks-riges-grundlov-af-5-juni-1849-junigrundloven/#indhold1.

27 Larsen, Kurt E., En bevægelse i bevægelse. Indre Mission i Danmark 1861–2011 (Copenhagen: Lohses Forlag, 2011)Google Scholar.

28 Allchin, A. M., N.F.S. Grundtvig: An Introduction to His Life and Work (Aarhus: Aarhus University Press, 1997)Google Scholar; Møller, Jes Fabricius, Grundtvigianisme i det 20. Århundrede (Copenhagen: Vartov, 2005)Google Scholar.

29 Bramming, Torben, Tidehvervs historie (Copenhagen: Anis, 1993)Google Scholar.

30 Since the 1980s, Tidehverv—led by clergymen and later parliamentary members Søren Krarup and Jesper Langballe—has worked closely with the Danish People's Party and has advocated a strong anti-immigration and anti-Muslim line. This is a marked shift from earlier decades, when Tidehverv was politically independent and represented persons from both the political right and left. See Bramming, Torben, “Tidehverv og velfærdsstaten—generationers kritik,” in I himlen således også på jorden? Danske kirkefolk om velfærdsstaten og det moderne samfund, eds. Hansen, Nils Gunder, Petersen, Jørn Henrik, and Petersen, Klaus (Odense: University of Southern Denmark Press, 2010), 101–128Google Scholar.

31 Anette Jensen, Fra selvfølge til symbol—ægteskabet i krydsfeltet mellem stat, kirke og befolkning i 1800-tallet (PhD diss. University of Southern Denmark, 2003); Johansen, Hans Chr., Befolkningsudvikling og familiestruktur i det 18. århundrede (Odense: Odense Universitetsforlag, 1975)Google Scholar.

32 See Petersen, Jørn Henrik, Petersen, Klaus, and Christiansen, Niels Finn, eds., Dansk Velfærdshistorie. Frem mod socialsstaten, vol. 1, Perioden 1536–1898 (Odense: Syddansk Universitetsforlag, 2010)Google Scholar.

33 Pedersen, Kim Arne, “Grundtvig, det sociale spørgsmål og velfærdssamfundet,” in I himlen således på jorden?, 76–83Google Scholar.

34 It should however be emphasized that for certain key players, such as the economist Harald Westergaard, Christian ethics and the rational state social policy apparently went hand in hand. See Andersen, Lars, Balancekunstneren. Harald Westergaard og det sociale spørgsmål 1878–1907 (Odense: Syddansk Universitetsforlag, 2011)Google Scholar.

35 11. Aarsberetning for de danske Plejehjemsforeninger for Aaret 1904 med særlig Beretning om Plejehjemforeningen for Svendborg Amt (Copenhagen, 1905): 30Google Scholar. See also the summary of the lecture by Pastor S. H. Nissen and the convention on child issues in Meddelelser fra Kristelig Forening til vildfarne Børns Redning, June 3, 1901.

36 Jørgensen, Alfred Th., Filantropi. Vejledning i offentlig Forsorg og privat Velgørenhed for Begyndere (Copenhagen: O. Lohses Forlag, 1939), 135Google Scholar.

37 See for example Bech, Ludvig, “Hjem, Barn, Stat,” Børnesagens Tidende 34, no. 19 (1939): 308Google Scholar.

38 Petersen, Klaus, “Velfærdsstaten i dansk politisk retorik,” Tidsskrift for velferdsforskning 4 (2001): 16–28Google Scholar; Petersen, Jørn Henrik, Christiansen, Niels Finn, and Petersen, Klaus, “Kapitel 2. Det socialpolitiske idélandskab,” in Dansk Velfærdshistorie., vol. 3, Velfærdsstaten i Støbeskeen. Perioden 1933–1956, eds. Petersen, Jørn Henrik, Petersen, Klaus, and Christiansen, Niels Finn (Odense: Syddansk Universitetsforlag 2012), 133–151Google Scholar.

39 Brunner, Emil, Das Gebot und die Ordnungen: Entwurf einer protestantisch-theologischen Ethik (Tübingen: Mohr, 1932)Google Scholar; Althaus, Paul, “Zum gegenwärtigen lutherischen Staatsverständnis,” in Die Kirche und das Staatsproblem in der Gegenwart, eds. Althaus, Paul, Brunner, Emil, and Demant, Vigo Auguste (Berlin: Furche Verlag, 1934)Google Scholar.

40 Grimley, Citizenship, Community and the Church of England.

41 See for example Woodroofe, Kathleen, “The making of the welfare state in England: A summary of its origin and development,” Journal of Social History 1 (1968): 303–324CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bruce, Maurice, The Coming of the Welfare State (London: Batsford, 1961)Google Scholar; Lowe, Rodney, The Welfare State in Britain since 1945 (London: Routledge, 2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. However Temple's understanding of the term “welfare state” was different from the post-1945 understanding of the term as meaning social security system; see Petersen, Jørn Henrik and Petersen, Klaus, “Divergence and Confusion: The Origins of the Term ‘Welfare State’ in Germany and Britain 1840–1940,” Journal of European Social Policy 23, no. 1 (2013): 37–51CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

42 Norman, Church and Society in England.

43 Lambeth Conference 1948, Encyclical Letter from the Bishops together with the Resolutions and Reports (London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1948), 29Google Scholar.

44 This section is based on Tønnesen, ”Et trygt og godt hjem for alle”?, 263–279.

45 Vårt Land, August 5, 1948.

46 Vårt Land, January 11, 12, 13, and 15, 1951.

47 Berggrav, Eivind, “Stat og kirke i dag etter luthersk syn, Foredrag på det lutherske verdensforbunds møte i Hannover 1952,” Kirke og Kultur 57 (1952): 449–467Google Scholar.

48 Before the conference, the Hungarian bishop Lajos Ordass, Vice President of The Lutheran World Federation, had been placed under house arrest. Many East Germans had been refused exit permits, and there were no participants from Czechoslovakia and Poland.

49 Temple, William, Christianity and the State (London: Macmillan, 1928)Google Scholar; Temple, William, Christianity and Social Order (London: Penguin, 1941)Google Scholar.

50 Heiene, Gunnar, Eivind Berggrav, En biografi (Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1992)Google Scholar; Aud V. Tønnesen also mentions that Temple was known in Norway as a result of his involvement in the ecumenical work of the 1930s; see Tønnesen, “Et trygt og godt hjem for alle”?, 286.

51 When there was talk of secularization in general and of the secularized welfare state in particular, the concept was used more or less as a synonym for de-Christianization and the diminishing role of Christianity as a basis for common values in society.

52 This point of view had been very influential in the Norwegian church struggle; and was also strongly emphasized by Temple; see Heiene, Eivind Berggrav, 345.

53 Berggrav, Eivind, “Velferden og sinnelaget,” Kirke og Kultur 61 (1956): 95–96Google Scholar.

54 See the following texts by Berggrav, Eivind: “Kirkeperspektiver,” Præsteforeningens Blad 40 (1950): 248–251Google Scholar; “Humanisme og kristendom i dag,” Samtiden 59 (1950): 471–489Google Scholar; “Humanisme og kristendom i dag,” Præsteforeningens Blad 41 (1951): 533–537Google Scholar; “Stat og kirke i dag etter luthersk syn, Foredrag på det lutherske verdensforbunds møte i Hannover 1952,” 449–467.

55 In December 1950, Berggrav had left the bishopric in Oslo and had thrown himself into ecumenical work

56 Berggrav, Eivind, “Velferden og sinnelaget,” Kirke og Kultur 61 (1956): 95–96Google Scholar.

57 Eivind Berggrav, “Ansvaret i velfærdsstaten,” Vestkysten, August 10, 1956.

58 Cited from the newspaper Sønderjyden, Haderslev, February 2, 1956.

59 This formulation was not found in other church people. It only reflects a slightly primitive view of the taxpayer that is more “vulgar” than what could be found in the economic-liberal criticism among politicians.

60 Lundbak, Henrik, Staten stærk og folket frit (Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum, 2001)Google Scholar.

61 Larsen, Indre Mission, 25–55.

62 Holt, Paul, “Velfærdsstaten—en historisk analyse og en kristen kritik,” Frihed og Fællesskab 17 (1955): 3–6Google Scholar. See also: Kristeligt Dagblad, December 15, 1955.

63 Holt, “Velfærdsstaten,” 3–6.

64 Malmgart, Ingen skal gå sulten i seng, 62.

65 Sørensen, Johs. V., “Kan vi gøre for, at vi er, som vi er?,” Vendsyssel Tidende, November 28, 1956Google Scholar.

66 Bramming, Tidehvervs historie, 84.

67 Horstmann, Johs, “Kirkens politiske og sociale opgave I,” Tidehverv, 35, no. 1–2 (1961): 1–8Google Scholar.

68 Horstmann, Johs., “Velfærdskristendom,” Tidehverv 35, no. 8–9 (1961): 61–75Google Scholar.

69 See for example: Krarup, Søren, “Folkekirke og velfærdssamfund,” Tidehverv 41, no. 1–2 (1967): 15–19Google Scholar.

70 Lützen, Byen tæmmes; Malmgart, Ingen skal gå sulten i seng.

71 Malmgard, Liselotte, “Frivillig næstekærlighed og tvungen velfærd,” in I himlen således også på jorden?, 57–70Google Scholar.

72 Jørgensen, Alfred Th., Filantropi. Vejledning i offentlig Forsorg og privat Velgørenhed for Begyndere (Copenhagen: Lohses Forlag, 1939)Google Scholar.

73 Jensen, Jens J., “Kirkens plads i velfærdsstaten,” Fyns Venstreblad, September 17, 1952Google Scholar.

74 Christensen, J. D., “Humanisme—et overgangsstadium,” Indre Missions Tidende 105, no. 31 (1958): 391Google Scholar.

75 See also Larsen, Kurt, “Indre Mission, socialt arbejde og velfærdssamfundet,” in I himlen således også på jorden?, 25–56Google Scholar.

76 Petersen, Klaus, “Børnesagen. Dansk familiepolitik,” in Dansk velfærdshistorie. Mellem skøn og ret, vol. 2, Perioden 1898–1933, eds. Petersen, Jørn Henrik, Petersen, Klaus, and Christiansen, Niels Finn (Odense: Syddansk Universitetsforlag, 2010), 739–743Google Scholar.

77 Kristeligt Dagblad, September 26, 1956.

78 Jensen, Folmer Tange, “Diakonien på dagsordnen,” Dansk Kirkeliv 35 (1958): 108–115Google Scholar.

79 Nørgaard, Jens, “Diakoni i en velfærdsstat,” Dansk Kirkeliv 41 (1962): 54–60Google Scholar.

80 This view was also expressed at the Anglican Church's Lambeth Conference in 1948.

81 Krabbe, Otto, “Forgår vi af velfærd?,” Præsteforeningens Blad 49 (1959): 61–68Google Scholar.

82 Ibid., 121.

83 Madsen, P. Munch, “Er der basis for vor lutherske forkyndelse?,” Præsteforeningens Blad 44 (1954): 120–126Google Scholar.

84 Augustinus, P., “Næstekærlighed,” Præsteforeningens Blad 44 (1954): 474Google Scholar.

85 Krabbe, Otto, Om velfærd og ansvar (Copenhagen: GAD, 1966)Google Scholar. One can also refer here to the contemporary more concrete discussion in Hansen, Immanuel, Diakonien i dag (Copenhagen: Lohses Forlag, 1967)Google Scholar.

86 Jørgensen, Torben, “Tryghed i velfærdsstaten,” Sønderjyden, March 16, 1956Google Scholar.

87 Kleis, J., “Velfærdsstat og kristendom,” Information, January 5, 1959Google Scholar.

88 Trock, C., “Kristendom og velfærdsstat,” Kristeligt Dagblad, February 4, 1959Google Scholar.

89 Petersen, Jørn Henrik, Petersen, Klaus, and Christiansen, Niels Finn, eds., Velfærdsstatens storhedstid. Dansk velfærdshistorie, vol. 4, 1956–1973 (Odense: University of Southern Denmark Press, 2012), 131Google Scholar.

90 Fonsmark, Henning, Historien om den danske utopi (Copenhagen: Gyldendal 1991)Google Scholar; Møller, Jes Fabricius, Hal Koch—En biografi (Copenhagen: Gads Forlag, 2009)Google Scholar.

91 Koch, Hal, “Staten en fjende?” Politiken, December 2, 1956Google Scholar.

92 See Kristeligt Dagblad, October 22, 1956.

93 Koch, Hal, Fremtiden Formes (Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1962), 47Google Scholar.

94 Koch, Hal, “I anledning af kulturudtalelsen,” Politiken, January 16, 1957Google Scholar.

95 Koch, Hal, “Ikke lykke, men surhed i velfærdsstaten” [Interview] Østsjællands Folkeblad, October 12, 1956Google Scholar.

96 Fonsmark, Historien om den danske utopi, 87–107.

97 Koch, Hal, “En livsform skal bestå sin prøve,” in Meninger om Fællesmarkedet, ed. Stubkjær, Finn (Copenhagen: Forlaget aktuelle bøger, 1962)Google Scholar.

98 Lindhardt, Poul Georg, “Ønsker kristendommen en Velfærdsstat?,” in Hug og Parade, eds. Nielsen, Frederik and Petersen, Ole H. (Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1960), 71–82Google Scholar. Dialectic theology pays attention to the addressing nature of the gospels and requires the individual to make a personal decision as an answer to this address. Dialectic theology has played an important role for Tidehverv, but P. G. Lindhardt was not connected to Tidehverv.

99 Sørensen, Villy, “Velfærdsstat og personlighed,” in Digtere og dæmoner. Fortolkninger og vurderinger (Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1959), 219–228Google Scholar.

100 Petersen, Jørn Henrik and Petersen, Lis Holm, “Næstekærlighed og velfærdsstat,” in 13 værdier for den danske velfærdsstat, eds. Petersen, Jørn Henrik, Petersen, Klaus, and Petersen, Lis Holm (Odense: Syddansk Universitetsforlag, 2007), 113–134Google Scholar; Andersen, Svend and van Kooten Niekerk, Kees, eds., Concern for the Other: Perspectives on the Ethics of K. E. Løgstrup (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 2008)Google Scholar.

101 Løgstrup, Knud, The Ethical Demand (Minneapolis: Alasdair Macintyre, 1971)Google Scholar. The book was originally published in Danish in 1956.

102 See Petersen and Petersen, “Gensidig eller ensidig,” 209–230.

103 Berggrav, “Stat og kirke i dag etter luthersk syn, Foredrag på det lutherske verdensforbunds møte i Hannover 1952,” 454.

104 Holt, “Velfærdsstaten,” 5.

105 See Béland, Daniel and Cox, Robert Henry, eds., Ideas and Politics in Social Science Research (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

106 See Petersen, Jørn Henrik, Petersen, Klaus, and Christiansen, Niels Finn, eds., Dansk velfærdshistorie. Velfærdsstaten i støbeskeen, vol. 3, Perioden 1933–1956 (Odense: Syddansk Universitetsforlag, 2012), 87–152Google Scholar.