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“Finding Luther”: Toward an Archaeology of the Reformer and the Earliest Reformation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 December 2017

Louis D. Nebelsick  and
Tomoko Emmerling
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Abstract

In view of Martin Luther's prominence as a person who changed the course of world history with his Reformation and given the abundance of historical sources on the reformer's life and work, the great extent to which archaeological discoveries of the last fifteen years have shed new and sometimes surprising light on the reformer's life might seem astonishing. The study at hand presents these new insights by introducing the results of archaeological excavations that took place on the premises of Martin Luther's parents’ home in Mansfeld and in the garden of the Luther House in Wittenberg, which for more than thirty years was the home of the reformer. The discoveries made in both places allow new insights into the reformer's and his family's everyday life. They enrich, or even correct, our knowledge about these aspects with fascinating, new, and sometimes surprising facets. The majority of the archaeological finds took place prior to the exhibition “Finding Luther: Archaeologists on the Reformer's Trail” at the State Museum of Prehistory Halle (Saale) (2008/2009) and in the framework of the project “Luther Archaeology” at the State Office for Heritage Management and Archaeology of Saxony-Anhalt (2010–2015). These finds, as well as architectural, archival, and scientific investigations, shed new light on Martin Luther's family background and childhood, on the social status of his parents, as well as on his immediate living environment and the high living standard in his Wittenberg home. Taken together, these conditions reflect his social status as a respected professor of theology, protagonist of the Reformation, and member of the highest social class in Wittenberg. The last section of this study gives an insight into some selected results of further excavations that have been carried out throughout Wittenberg during the last few years. They make it possible to contextualize not only Luther's household but also the consequences of the Reformation within early modern Wittenberg.

Type
Articles
Information
Church History , Volume 86 , Special Issue 4: Church History in Commemoration of the 500th Anniversary of the Reformation , December 2017 , pp. 1155 - 1207
Copyright
Copyright © American Society of Church History 2017 

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References

1 For the view of Martin Luther's daily life and economic environment on the basis of his writings: Treu, Martin, “‘Wie der Hund auf das Fleisch’: Theologie und Alltag bei Martin Luther,” in Luthers Lebenswelten, ed. Meller, Harald, Rhein, Stefan, and Stephan, Hans-Georg, Tagungen des Landesmuseums für Vorgeschichte Halle 1 (Halle [Saale]: Landesamt für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt, 2008), 365–367 Google Scholar.

2 The corresponding buildings are now museums under the umbrella of the Luther Memorials Foundation of Saxony-Anhalt and most of them are UNESCO World Cultural Heritage sites. For their complex history, see Laube, Stefan, Das Lutherhaus Wittenberg: Eine Museumsgeschichte, Schriftenreihe der Stiftung Luthergedenkstätten in Sachsen-Anhalt 3 (Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, 2003)Google Scholar; Rhein, Stefan, “Das Reformationsjubiläum 2017 und die mitteldeutschen Lutherstätten,” Geographische Rundschau 2 (February 2017): 42–49 Google Scholar; and Scheunemann, Jan, “Luther Sites Today,” in Martin Luther: Treasures of the Reformation, ed. Meller, Harald, Eberle, Martin, Kretzschmar, Ulrike, Rhein, Stefan, Feldman, Kaywin, and Bailey, Colin B. (Dresden: Sandstein, 2016), 411–422 Google Scholar.

3 In fifteenth- and sixteenth-century Germany, names were spelled ad hoc, and as “th” could be vocalized as “t” or “d” and the consonants “t” and “d” were interchangeable depending on the local dialect, the Luder/Luther name could be spelled a variety of ways. We will use “Luder,” the form chosen by Martin's father and his siblings, when referring to the Mansfeld family. The form Martin preferred, “Luther,” is used only when referring to him and his immediate family. Martin Luther's decision to choose the spelling “Luther” may have been influenced by his briefly held notion to adopt the name Eleutherius (liberated) as a Greek/Humanist nom de plume: Moeller, Bernd and Stackmann, Karl, Luder – Luther – Eleutherius: Erwägungen zu Luthers Namen (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1981)Google Scholar; or it may have been because the word Luder, which can also mean hussy or slob, had a vulgar smack to it: Udolf, Jürgen, Warum änderte Martin Luther seinen Namen? (Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag Winter, 2016)Google Scholar.

4 Balfanz, Kathrin, “Die Stadt im Tal: baubegleitende archäologische Untersuchungen in Mansfeld-Lutherstadt,” Archäologie in Sachsen-Anhalt 3 (2005): 277 Google Scholar.

5 For a summary, see Andreas Stahl, “Historische Bauforschung an Luthers Elternhaus in Mansfeld,” in Luthers Lebenswelten, ed. Meller, Rhein, and Stephan, 167–175; Stahl, Andreas and Schlenker, Björn, “Lutherarchäologie in Mansfeld: Ausgrabungen und baubegleitende Bauforschungen am Elternhaus Martin Luthers,” in Fundsache Luther: Archäologen auf den Spuren des Reformators; Begleitband zur Landesausstellung “Fundsache Luther – Archäologen auf den Spuren des Reformators” im Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte Halle (Saale) vom 31. Oktober 2008 bis 26. April 2009, ed. Meller, Harald (Stuttgart: Theiss; Halle [Saale]: Landesamt für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt, Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte, 2008), 120–123 Google Scholar; and Stahl, Andreas and Schlenker, Björn, “Luther in Mansfeld: Excavations and Accompanying Architectural Research on Martin Luther's Parents’ Home,” in Martin Luther and the Reformation, ed. Meller, Harald, Eberle, Martin, Kretzschmar, Ulrike, Rhein, Stefan, Feldman, Kaywin, and Bailey, Colin B. (Dresden: Sandstein, 2016), 57–62 Google Scholar.

6 Several contributions are dedicated to the excavation of the “Goldener Ring” in Meller, Harald, ed., Mansfeld – Luther(s)stadt: Interdisziplinäre Forschungen zur Heimat Martin Luthers (Halle an der Saale: Forschungsberichte des Landesmuseums für Vorgeschichte, 2015), 373–518 Google Scholar.

7 Christian Matthes, “Ausgrabungen als stadttopografische Untersuchungen innerhalb und im Umfeld des ‘Luthergeburtshauses’ in Eisleben,” in Luthers Lebenswelten, ed. Meller, Rhein, and Stephan, 79–89; and Christian Matthes, “Die archäologische Entdeckung des Luthergeburtshauses in Eisleben,” in Meller, Fundsache Luther, 114–119.

8 Derived from Luther's own exegesis of Jan Hus's statement at his martyrdom, “Today you are burning a goose (Czech Hus) however in a hundred years’ time you will hear a swan sing”: Joestel, Volkmar, “Luther und das Mansfelder Land: Legenden und ihre Hintergründe,” in Martin Luther und Eisleben, ed. Knape, Rosemarie (Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, 2007), 404–411 Google Scholar; and Treu, Martin, Martin Luther und die Reformation in Europa (Dresden: Hamburg Ellert & Richter, 2016)Google Scholar.

9 Meller, Fundsache Luther, pp. 324, 326, no. F35; and Meller, et al, Martin Luther: Treasures of the Reformation, p. 376, no. 388.

10 Meller, Fundsache Luther. In the same year (2008), the conference proceedings (Meller, Rhein, and Stephan, Luthers Lebenswelten) were published, after the finds from Mansfeld had already been presented in a publication in the previous year: Meller, Luther in Mansfeld.

11 This took place within the framework of the project “Lutherarchäologie” at the State Office for Heritage Management and Archaeology of Saxony-Anhalt that was sponsored by the Federal and State Finance Ministries within the framework of the so-called “Mauerfonds.” The following publications emerged from this project: Meller, Harald, ed., Mitteldeutschland im Zeitalter der Reformation: Interdisziplinäre Tagung vom 22. bis 24. Juni 2012 in Halle (Saale) (Halle an der Saale: Landesamt für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt, 2014)Google Scholar; Meller, , ed., Glas, Steinzeug und Bleilettern aus Wittenberg (Halle an der Saale: Landesamt für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt, 2014)Google Scholar; Meller, and Fessner, Michael, eds., Mansfelder Schächte und Stollen (Halle an der Saale: Forschungsberichte des Landesmuseums für Vorgeschichte, 2015)Google Scholar; Meller, , ed., Fokus: Wittenberg; Die Stadt und ihr Lutherhaus: Multidisziplinäre Forschungen über und unter Tage (Halle an der Saale: Forschungsberichte des Landesmuseums für Vorgeschichte, 2015)Google Scholar; Meller, , ed., Mansfeld – Luther(s)stadt: Interdisziplinäre Forschungen zur Heimat Martin Luthers (Halle an der Saale: Forschungsberichte des Landesmuseums für Vorgeschichte, 2015)Google Scholar.

12 Three US exhibitions on Luther's life and legacy were held more or less contemporaneously between October 2016 and January 2017 in Minneapolis, New York, and Atlanta. They were accompanied by a catalogue volume: Meller, et al, Martin Luther: Treasures of the Reformation; but also a wide-ranging essay volume: Meller, et al, Martin Luther and the Reformation.

13 See, for instance, Schilling, Heinz, Martin Luther: Rebell in einer Zeit des Umbruchs, 3rd ed. (München: C. H. Beck, 2016), 56 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Dieterich, Veit-Jakobus, Martin Luther: Sein Leben und seine Zeit (München: Deutscher Taschenbuch, 2008), 9 Google Scholar; and Schwarz, Hans, True Faith in the True God: An Introduction to Luther's Life and Thought (Minneapolis, Minn.: Fortress, 2015), 8 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

14 Luther's table talks: D. Martin Luthers Werke: Kritische Gesamtausgabe, Tischreden, ed. Drescher, Karl, Kroker, Ernst, and Brenner, Oskar, 6 vols. (Weimar: H. Böhlau, 1912–1921), vol. 5, no. 6251, p. 557–558 Google Scholar; ibid., no. 5362, p. 93; and ibid., vol. 3, no. 2888a, 2888b, p. 51. For the table talks as a source for Luther's childhood and youth, see Alexander Bartmuß, “Die Tischreden als Quelle für Luthers Luthers Kindheit und Jugend,” in Martin Luther und Eisleben, ed. Knape, 121–142.

15 Hans Fessner, “Die Familie Luder und das Bergwerks – und Hüttenwesen in der Grafschaft Mansfeld und im Herzogtum Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttel,” in Martin Luther und Eisleben, ed. Knape, 13–21; Michael Fessner, “Die Familie Luder in Möhra und Mansfeld: Archivalische Überlieferungen zum Elternhaus von Martin Luther,” in Fundsache Luther, ed. Meller, 78–85; Michael Fessner, “Mining and Metallurgy in Mansfeld Land in the Time of Martin Luther,” in Martin Luther and the Reformation, ed. Meller, et al, 50–52; and Hansjörg Küster, “Landscape Usage in Mansfeld Land,” in Martin Luther and the Reformation, ed. Meller, et al, 43.

16 See Stahl, “Historische Bauforschung an Luthers Elternhaus in Mansfeld,” in Luthers Lebenswelten, ed. Meller, Rhein, and Stephan, 167–175; Stahl and Schlenker, “Lutherarchäologie in Mansfeld,” in Fundsache Luther, ed. Meller, 120–123; and Stahl and Schlenker, “Luther in Mansfeld,” in Martin Luther and the Reformation, ed. Meller, et al, 57–62.

17 See Todorov, Nicola P., “Le transfert du modèle administratif napoléonien en Allemagne: Enjeux et héritages,” in Savoirs et métiers de l'État au XXe siècle: France et États germaniques, ed. Krulic, Brigitte (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2014), 13–31 Google Scholar. We would like to thank Christian Philipsen for information on the Mansfeld mairie.

18 Stahl and Schlenker, “Luther in Mansfeld,” in Martin Luther and the Reformation, ed. Meller, et al, 60.

19 For the excavation, see Schlenker, Björn, “Archäologie am Elterhaus Martin Luthers,” in Luther in Mansfeld: Forschungen am Elternhaus des Reformators, ed. Meller, Harald (Halle an der Saale: Landesamt für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt, 2007), 17–31 Google Scholar; and for the many small dimension coins, see Ulf Dräger, “Die Münzen – Eine verlorene Haushaltskasse?” in Luther in Mansfeld, ed. Meller, 159–168.

20 Schlenker, “Archäologie am Elterhaus Martin Luthers,” in Luther in Mansfeld, ed. Meller, 28–31; Stahl and Schlenker, “Lutherarchäologie in Mansfeld,” in Fundsache Luther, ed. Meller, 130; and Stahl and Schlenker, “Luther in Mansfeld,” in Martin Luther and the Reformation, ed. Meller, et al, 68–69.

21 In what follows, we will only be spotlighting finds from this vast assemblage that have given us significant new information about the reformer.

22 See Hans-Jürgen Döhle, “Tierreste aus Küchenabfällen der Familien Hans Luder in Mansfeld und Martin Luther in Wittenberg,” in Luthers Lebenswelten, ed. Meller, Rhein, and Stephan, 330–333; Stahl and Schlenker, “Luther in Mansfeld,” in Martin Luther and the Reformation, ed. Meller, et al, 62–63; and Meller, Fundsache Luther, pp. 174–176, nos. C24–C25.

23 Döhle, “Tierreste aus Küchenabfällen,” in Luthers Lebenswelten, ed. Meller, Rhein, and Stephan, 333–334; Stahl and Schlenker, “Luther in Mansfeld,” in Martin Luther and the Reformation, ed. Meller, et al, 63; see also Meller, Fundsache Luther, pp. 176–178, no. C27 “Singvögel” (“Bones of Songbirds”), no. C30 “Lockpfeifen” (“Bird Calls”).

24 Fessner, “Die Familie Luder in Möhra und Mansfeld,” in Fundsache Luther, 84–85; for the blackcock bone, see Meller, ed., Fundsache Luther, p. 176, no. C26; and Hans-Jürgen Döhle, “Schwein, Geflügel und Fisch – bei Luthers zu Tisch,” in Luther in Mansfeld, ed. Meller, 174–175, with fig. 11.

25 Stahl and Schlenker, “Luther in Mansfeld,” in Martin Luther and the Reformation, ed. Meller, et al, 63.

26 Dirk Heinrich, “Fischkonsum in Luthers Elternhaus als Spiegel für Fischerei und Fischhandel in der frühen Neuzeit,” in Luthers Lebenswelten, ed. Meller, Rhein, and Stephan, 342–344; Stahl and Schlenker, “Luther in Mansfeld,” in Martin Luther and the Reformation, ed. Meller, et al, 63; and Meller, Fundsache Luther, p. 178, no. C28. See sixteenth-century miners augmenting their income by fishing: Döhle, “Schwein, Geflügel und Fisch,” in Luther in Mansfeld, ed. Meller, fig. 22.

27 Heinrich, “Fischkonsum in Luthers Elternhaus,” in Luthers Lebenswelten, ed. Meller, Rhein, and Stephan, 338–342; Stahl and Schlenker, “Luther in Mansfeld,” in Martin Luther and the Reformation, ed. Meller, et al, 63; and Meller, Fundsache Luther, p. 178, no. C29.

28 Summed up by Monika Hellmund, in Meller, Fundsache Luther, pp. 178–182, nos. C31–C40; and Monika Hellmund, “Pflanzenfunde aus der Luthergrube,” in Luther in Mansfeld, ed. Meller, 187–200.

29 Monika Hellmund, “Die Familie Martin Luthers und die Pflanzenwelt,” in Luthers Lebenswelten, ed. Meller, Rhein, and Stephan, 353.

30 Ibid., 355–357.

31 Ibid., 356.

32 Ibid., 358–360.

33 Schlenker, “Archäologie am Elterhaus Martin Luthers,” in Luther in Mansfeld, ed. Meller, 99–101; and Meller, Fundsache Luther, pp. 188–190, no. C56.

34 See Michael Fessner, “Die Familie Luder in Möhra und Mansfeld,” in Fundsache Luther, ed. Meller, p. 79, fig. 35; and Lucas Cranach the Elder, Bildnis der Margaretha Luther, Luthers Mutter, Wartburg-Stiftung Eisenach Cranach Digital Archive, http://lucascranach.org/DE_WSE_M0069.

35 Bartmuß, “Die Tischreden als Quelle für Luthers Luthers Kindheit und Jugend,” in Martin Luther und Eisleben, ed. Knape, 121–142; and Melanchton, Phillip, Vita Lutheri (Wittenberg, 1555), 9–10 Google Scholar. See also Günther Wartenberg, “Martin Luthers Kindheit, Jugend und erste Schulzeit in frühen biografischen Darstellungen des Reformators,” in Martin Luther und Eisleben, ed. Knape, 145–146.

36 For a nineteenth-century hagiographic account of Margarethe Luder's humble frugality, see Schneider, Leo, “Die Mutter des großen Doctor Martin,” Die Gartenlaube 3 (1878): 45–47 Google Scholar.

37 Schlenker, “Archäologie am Elterhaus Martin Luthers,” in Luther in Mansfeld, ed. Meller, 70–72.

38 Ibid., 47–61; Stahl and Schlenker, “Luther in Mansfeld,” in Martin Luther and the Reformation, ed. Meller, et al, 67–68; and Meller, et al, Martin Luther: Treasures of the Reformation, p. 36, nos. 16–17.

39 Schlenker, “Archäologie am Elterhaus Martin Luthers,” in Luther in Mansfeld, ed. Meller, 34–47.

40 The jingle jangles may come from such a crown: ibid., 44–47; and see also Meller, Fundsache Luther, p. 170, no. C10.

41 Meller, et al, Martin Luther: Treasures of the Reformation, p. 34, no. 15.

42 Schlenker, “Archäologie am Elterhaus Martin Luthers,” in Luther in Mansfeld, ed. Meller, 62–67; Stahl and Schlenker, “Luther in Mansfeld,” in Martin Luther and the Reformation, ed. Meller, et al, 67; and, most recently, Meller, et al, Martin Luther: Treasures of the Reformation, p. 37, no. 18.

43 Schlenker, “Archäologie am Elterhaus Martin Luthers,” in Luther in Mansfeld, ed. Meller, 72–79; and Stahl and Schlenker, “Luther in Mansfeld,” in Martin Luther and the Reformation, ed. Meller, et al, 65–66.

44 Meller, et al, Martin Luther: Treasures of the Reformation, p. 22, no. 2.

45 Ibid., p. 24, no. 3.

46 Pieter Bruegel the Elder, Kinderspiele, Gemäldegalerie, 1017, Kunsthistorisches Museum Wien, www.khm.at/de/object/caf1a3dfb5/.

47 Meller, et al, Martin Luther: Treasures of the Reformation, p. 24, no. 4.

48 Schlenker, “Archäologie am Elterhaus Martin Luthers,” in Luther in Mansfeld, ed. Meller, 96–99; Stahl and Schlenker, “Luther in Mansfeld,” in Martin Luther and the Reformation, ed. Meller, et al, 67; and Meller, et al, Martin Luther: Treasures of the Reformation, p. 26, no. 6.

49 For a summary account of the Aachen pilgrimage, see Hartmut Kühne, “Zwischen Totschlag und Tourismus: Spuren von Wallfahrt und Pilgerschaft im mitteldeutschen Umfeld Luthers,” in Luthers Lebenswelten, ed. Meller, Rhein, and Stephan, 378–387, esp. 378–380.

50 Schlenker, “Archäologie am Elterhaus Martin Luthers,” in Luther in Mansfeld, ed. Meller, 92–94; Stahl and Schlenker, “Luther in Mansfeld,” in Martin Luther and the Reformation, ed. Meller, et al, 65; and Meller, et al, Martin Luther: Treasures of the Reformation, p. 43, no. 24.

51 Schlenker, “Archäologie am Elterhaus Martin Luthers,” in Luther in Mansfeld, ed. Meller, 92–94.

52 Küster, “Landscape Usage in Mansfeld Land,” in Martin Luther and the Reformation, ed. Meller, et al, 42–45. For the Mansfeld copper mining field in general, see Jankowski, Günter, ed., Zur Geschichte des Mansfelder Kupferschieferbergbaus (Clausthal-Zellerfeld: Vereinigung der Freunde von Kunst und Kultur im Bergbau, 1997)Google Scholar; and Meller and Fessner, eds., Mansfelder Schächte und Stollen. For Hans Luder's personal involvement, see Fessner, “Die Familie Luder in Möhra und Mansfeld,” in Fundsache Luther, ed. Meller, 78–85.

53 For the Annaberger Bergaltar, see Buschmann, Wolfgang, Der Annaberger Bergaltar: Von den Bergleuten und ihrem Maler Hans Hesse (Annaberg-Buchholz: Erzgebirgs Rundschau, 1997)Google Scholar.

54 Lucas Cranach shows Mansfeld castle in a heath-like setting: Lucas Cranach the Elder, Conversion of St. Paul, 1549, Germanisches Nationalmuseum, Nuremberg; Siegfried Bräuer, “Mansfeld: Grafschaft, Schloss, Stadt,” in Fundsache Luther, ed. Meller, pp. 54–65, fig. 25; Lucas Cranach the Younger, Bekehrung des Saul, Cranach Digital Archive, http://lucascranach.org/DE_BStGS-GNMN_Gm226. A map of Mansfeld county from 1571 shows only isolated pockets of forest (Bräuer, “Mansfeld: Grafschaft, Schloss, Stadt,” in Fundsache Luther, ed. Meller, fig. 23), and a view of Mansfeld from ca. 1650, long after the zenith of mining activity, still shows scanty tree cover (see Meller and Fessner, eds., Mansfelder Schächte und Stollen, fig. 20).

55 For the fundamental changes in rural Europe in the fifteenth century, see Dyer, Christopher, “Rural Europe,” in The New Cambridge Medieval History, vol. 7, c. 1415–c. 1500, ed. Allmand, Christopher (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 106–120 Google Scholar.

56 Michael Fessner, “Der Kupferschieferbergbau in der Grafschaft Mansfeld bis zum Dreißigjährigen Krieg,” in Fokus: Wittenberg, ed. Meller, 11–39.

57 For a compilation of the scanty written sources about Martin Luther's school in Mansfeld, see Aland, Kurt, Luther Deutsch: Die Werke Martin Luthers in neuer Auswahl für die Gegenwart, vol. 1, Die Anfänge (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1969)Google Scholar.

58 See Burger, Christoph, Tradition und Neubeginn: Martin Luther in seinen frühen Jahren (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2014), 23 Google Scholar.

59 For the confiscation of church property, see Zöllner, Walter, “Der Untergang der Stifter und Klöster im sächsisch-thüringischen Raum während des Reformationszeitalters,” in 450 Jahre Reformation, ed. Stern, Leo and Steinmetz, Max (Berlin: Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften, 1967), 157–169 Google Scholar. The reformer had proposed that the prince elector benefit from the confiscation of church lands and town cloisters be transformed into schools: Luther, Martin, Ordnung eines gemeinen Kastens: Radschlag, wie die geistlichen Güter zu handeln sind, in D. Martin Luthers Werke: Kritische Gesamtausgabe, Schriften, ed. Knaake, J. R. F., Kawerau, Gustav, Pietsch, Paul, Knaake, D., Drescher, Karl, Koffmane, Gustav, Walther, Wilhelm, et al. , 56 vols. (Weimar: H. Böhlau, 1883–2009)Google Scholar (hereafter cited as WA), 12:11.

60 For the crucial role of Katharina Luther (neé von Bora) in running the Luthers’ residence and estates, see Treu, Martin, Katharina von Bora, die Lutherin: Aufsätze anläßlich ihres 500. Geburtstages (Wittenberg: Stiftung Luthergedenkstätten, 1999)Google Scholar; and Bainton, Roland H., Women of the Reformation in Germany and Italy (Minneapolis, Minn.: Fortress, 2007), 23–44 Google Scholar.

61 For the building's architectural history, see Reinhard Schmitt and Mirko Gutjahr, “Das ‘Schwarze Kloster’ in Wittenberg: Bauforschung und Archäologie im und am Kloster der Augustiner-Eremiten und Wohnhaus Martin Luthers,” in Fundsache Luther, ed. Meller, 132–139, esp. 132–136.

62 Preliminary reports on this excavation include: Hans-Georg Stephan, “Lutherarchäologie: Funde und Befunde aus Mansfeld und Wittenberg; Gedanken und Materialien zur Erforschung der Lebenswelt des Reformators und zur Alltagskultur Mitteldeutschlands im 16. Jh.,” in Luthers Lebenswelten, ed. Meller, Rhein, and Stephan, 13–77, esp. 17–73; Schmitt and Gutjahr, “Das ‘Schwarze Kloster’ in Wittenberg,” in Fundsache Luther, ed. Meller, 132–139; Gutjahr, Mirko, “Wie protestantisch ist Luthers Müll? Die Konfessionalisierung und ihre Auswirkungen auf die materielle Alltagskultur des 16. Jahrhunderts,” in Religiosität in Mittelalter und Neuzeit, ed. Untermann, Matthias (Paderborn: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Archäologie des Mittelalters und der Neuzeit, 2011), 43–50 Google Scholar; and Mirko Gutjahr, “The First Protestant Parsonage? Luther's House and Household According to Archaeological Evidence,” in Martin Luther and the Reformation, ed. Meller, et al, 165–172.

63 Schmitt and Gutjahr, “Das ‘Schwarze Kloster’ in Wittenberg,” in Fundsache Luther, ed. Meller, 133. For the tower experience, see Thompson, W. D. J. Cargill, “The Problem of Luther's ‘Tower Experience’ and its Place in his Intellectual Development,” in Religious Motivation: Biographical and Sociological Problems for the Church Historian, ed. Baker, Derek (Oxford: Blackwell, 1978), 187–211 Google Scholar; and Volker Leppin, “Becoming a Reformer,” in Martin Luther and the Reformation, ed. Meller, et al, 86–91.

64 Gutjahr, “Wie protestantisch ist Luthers Müll?,” in Religiosität in Mittelalter und Neuzeit, ed. Untermann, 45.

65 For a series of glasses and precious vessels traditionally said to have belonged to Luther, see Meller, Fundsache Luther, 310–318; and see also Mirko Gutjahr, “‘Non cultus est, sed memoriae gratia’: Hinterlassenschaften Luthers zwischen Reliquien und Relikten,” in Fundsache Luther, ed. Meller, 100–105, esp. 101–103.

66 For the centrality of Luther's break with the Catholic mass for his Reformation, see Wandel, Lee P., The Eucharist in the Reformation: Incarnation and Liturgy (Cambrige: Cambridge University Press, 2006)Google Scholar. For the retention of precious goblets for Lutheran communion, see Fritz, Johann Michael, Das evangelische Abendmahlsgerät in Deutschland: Vom Mittelalter bis zum Ende des Alten Reiches (Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, 2004)Google Scholar.

67 For the Saxon reliquary collections, see Merkel, Kerstin, “Die Reliquien von Halle und Wittenberg, ihre Heiltumsbücher und Inszenierung,” in Cranach: Meisterwerke auf Vorrat; die Erlanger Handzeichnungen der Universitätsbibliothek; Bestands und Ausstellungskatalog, ed. Tacke, Andreas (Erlangen: Universiätsbibliothek Erlangen-Nürnberg, 1994), 37–50 Google Scholar. For the ragged interface between “Heiltum” and secular collections, see Laube, Stefan, Von der Reliquie zum Ding: Heiliger Ort – Wunderkammer – Museum (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

68 See Meller, et al, Martin Luther: Treasures of the Reformation, pp. 254–264, nos. 257–259, 269.

69 Ibid., p. 257, no. 260.

70 Ibid., p. 262, no. 267.

71 WA 4:149.

72 Junghans, Helmar, Wittenberg als Lutherstadt (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1979), 51–59 Google Scholar.

73 Paravicini, Werner, “Drechseln,” in Höfe und Residenzen im spätmittelalterlichen Reich: Teil II; Bilder und Begriffe (Ostfildern: Thorbecke, 2005), 1:212–214Google Scholar.

74 For carpentry as a veneration of Joseph, see Schapiro, Meyer “‘Muscipula Diaboli’: The Symbolism of the Merode Altarpiece,” Art Bulletin 27 (September 1945): 182–187 Google Scholar.

75 Ludolphy, Ingetraut, Friedrich der Weise: Kurfürst von Sachsen 1463–1525 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1984), 78–79 Google Scholar.

76 From 1518 to 1544, Luther and his helpers produced 2,551 works: Edwards, Mark U., Printing, Propaganda, and Martin Luther (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 24Google Scholar.

77 Meller, et al, Martin Luther: Treasures of the Reformation, p. 247, no. 241.

78 Ibid., p. 247, nos. 239–240.

79 Stephan, Hans-Georg, “Keramische Sonderformen in Mittelalter und Neuzeit,” in Keramik auf Sonderwegen, vol. 37, Internationales Hafnerei-Symposium, Herne 19. bis 25. September 2004 (Mainz: von Zabern, 2007), 1–16 Google Scholar. For fragments found in a house at Markt 4 in Wittenberg which intermittently belonged to the Cranach family, see Kluttig-Altmann, Ralf, “Archäologische Funde von Grundstücken der Familie Cranach in Wittenberg,” in Das ernestinische Wittenberg: Spuren Cranachs in Schloss und Stadt, ed. Lück, Heiner, Bünz, Enno, Helten, Leonhard, Kohnle, Armin, Sack, Dorothée, and Stephan, Hans-Georg (Petersberg: Imhof, 2015), 367 Google Scholar.

80 Meller, et al, Martin Luther: Treasures of the Reformation, pp. 250–251, nos. 245–248.

81 For domestic pottery, see Stephan, “Lutherarchäologie,” in Luthers Lebenswelten, ed. Meller, Rhein, and Stephan, 25–44; for animal bones, see Döhle, “Tierreste aus Küchenabfällen,” in Luthers Lebenswelten, ed. Meller, Rhein, and Stephan, 329–335; for fish remains, see Heinrich, “Fischkonsum in Luthers Elternhaus,” in Luthers Lebenswelten, ed. Meller, Rhein, and Stephan, 337–345; and for vegetable food, see Monika Hellmund, “Die Familie Martin Luthers und die Pflanzenwelt,” in Luthers Lebenswelten, ed. Meller, Rhein, and Stephan, 347–361.

82 Meller, et al, Martin Luther: Treasures of the Reformation, p. 242, no. 234.

83 Lucas Cranach the Elder, “Katharina von Bora,” 1526, Wartburg-Stiftung Eisenach, Cranach Digital Archive, http://lucascranach.org/DE_WSE_M0064.

84 For the Alsatian reformer's frustrated attempts to bridge the ever-widening doctrinal gap between the leaders of the central German Reformation and the more radical western European reformers, see Kittelson, James M., Wolfgang Capito: From Humanist to Reformer (Leiden: Brill, 1975)Google Scholar.

85 “Letter to Wolfgang Fabricius Capito,” Luther's Works, ed. Pelikan, Jaroslav, Lehmann, Helmut, Brown, Christopher Boyd, and Mayes, Benjamin T. G., 67+ vols. (St. Louis: Concordia; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1955–)Google Scholar (hereafter cited as LW), 50:171–174, no. 2365.

86 Gutjahr, Mirko, “Von einem Goldring vom Lutherhaus in Wittenberg zu einem möglichen Spiegelbild von Robert Campin,” Archäologie in Sachsen-Anhalt 5 (2011): 7–12 Google Scholar; Meller, Fundsache Luther, p. 238, no. E10; and “Letter to Wolfgang Fabricius Capito,” in LW 50:171–174, no. 2365.

87 Oledzka, Eva, Medieval and Renaissance Interiors in Illuminated Manuscripts (London: British Library, 2016)Google Scholar. For Dürer's and Cranach's variations on the theme of Saint Jerome or Cardinal Albrecht in his study, which shows a small icon as the only element of wall decor, see Brinkmann, Bodo, Cranach (London: Royal Academy of Arts, 2007), 254 Google Scholar.

88 For bourgeois art collections in seventeenth-century central Europe, see Thamer, Hans Ulrich, “Der Bürger als Sammler in der frühen Neuzeit,” in Bürgertum und Kunst in der Neuzeit, ed. Ulrich, Hans Thamer (Cologne: Böhlau, 2002), 99–113 Google Scholar. This also included modest households: Bogucka, Maria, “Die Kunstsammlungen in Danzig in der ersten Hälfte des 17. Jahrhunderts als soziologische und psychologische Erscheinung,” in “Kopet uns werkbytyden”: Beiträge zur hansischen und preußischen Geschichte; Festschrift für Walter Stark zum 75. Geburtstag, ed. Jörn, N. (Schwerin: Helms, 1999), 245–250 Google Scholar.

89 For the development and classification of tiled stoves, see Franz, Rosemarie, Der Kachelofen: Entstehung und kunstgeschichtliche Entwicklung vom Mittelalter bis zum Ausgang des Klassizismus (Graz: Universitätsverlag, 1981)Google Scholar.

90 For figurated late medieval stove tiles in late medieval and Renaissance central Europe, see Strauss, Konrad, Die Kachelkunst des 15. bis 17. Jahrhunderts in europäischen Ländern, III. Teil (München: Heydenreich, 1983)Google Scholar; and Hallenkamp-Lumpe, Julia, Studien zur Ofenkeramik des 12. bis 17. Jahrhunderts anhand von Bodenfunden aus Westfalen-Lippe (Mainz: Zabern, 2006)Google Scholar.

91 For the role of stove tiles in domestic iconography and culture transfer, see Gaimster, David, “Pots, Prints and Protestantism: Changing Mentalities in the Urban Domestic Sphere,” in The Archaeology of the Reformation 1480–1580, ed. Gaimster, David and Gilchrist, Roberta (Leeds: Maney, 2003), 122–144 Google Scholar; Gaimster, , “Archaeology of an Age of Print? Everyday Objects in an Age of Transition,” in Everyday Objects: Medieval and Early Modern Material Culture and its Meanings, ed. Hamling, Tara and Richardson, Catherine (Farnham: Ashgate, 2010), 133–144 Google Scholar; and Ring, Edgar, “Confessionalization in the Domestic Sphere during the Sixteenth Century: Archaeology and Reformation,” in Historical Archaeology in Central Europe, ed. Mehler, Natascha (Rockville: Society for Historical Archaeology, 2013), 167–183 Google Scholar.

92 Ralf Kluttig-Altmann, “Lutherkacheln aus Schmiedeberg,” in Fokus: Wittenberg, ed. Meller, 13–18; Kluttig-Altmann, “Produzent und Markt: Die Identifizierung keramischer Produkte des Spätmittelalters und der Frühneuzeit aus Bad Schmiedeberg im Wittenberger Fundbild,” in Fokus: Wittenberg, ed. Meller, 245–295.

93 Verena Schwartz, “Die ältere Geschichte des Lutherhauses im Spiegel der Kachelfunde,” in Luthers Lebenswelten, ed. Meller, Rhein, and Stephan, 209–222; Stephan, “Lutherarchäologie,” in Luthers Lebenswelten, ed. Meller, Rhein, and Stephan, 13–77, esp. 47–62; and Gutjahr, “Wie protestantisch ist Luthers Müll?,” in Religiosität in Mittelalter und Neuzeit, ed. Untermann, 45–46.

94 Fagan, Brian M., The Little Ice Age: How Climate Made History, 1300–1850 (New York: Basic, 2001)Google Scholar.

95 LW 40:91.

96 For Luther's attitude to iconography against the background of iconoclasm, see Stirm, Margarete, Die Bilderfrage in der Reformation (Gütersloh: Gütersloher Verlagshaus Mohn, 1977)Google Scholar. For its impact on contemporary European art, see Ozment, Steven, The Serpent and the Lamb: Cranach, Luther, and the Making of the Reformation (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2011)Google Scholar. For Saxon Protestant imagery, see Christensen, Carl C., Princes and Propaganda: Electoral Saxon Art of the Reformation (Kirksville, Mo.: Sixteenth Century Journal, 1992)Google Scholar.

97 For the elegant Erfurt stove of 1473, see Franz, Der Kachelofen, 53.

98 Gutjahr, “Wie protestantisch ist Luthers Müll?,”  in Religiosität in Mittelalter und Neuzeit, ed. Untermann, 45; Strauss, Konrad, Die Kachelkunst des 15. und 16. Jahrhunderts in Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz (Strasbourg: Heitz, 1966), plates 6–12Google Scholar; and Lappe, Ulrich, “Ein Fund mit spätmittelalterlichen Ofenkacheln aus der alten Universität in Erfurt,” Alt-Thüringen 36 (2003): 206–233 Google Scholar.

99 Meller, et al, Martin Luther: Treasures of the Reformation, p. 118, no. 99.

100 Kluttig-Altmann, “Produzent und Markt,” in Fokus: Wittenberg, ed. Meller, 266–268.

101 For examples, see Hentschel, Walter, Sächsische Plastik um 1500 (Dresden: Wilhelm Limpert, 1926)Google Scholar; Kahsnitz, Rainer, Carved Splendor: Late Gothic Altarpieces in Southern Germany, Austria, and South Tirol (Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2006)Google Scholar; and Simona Schellenberger, “Bildwerke des Meisters HW: Entwicklungen der spätgotischen Skulptur zwischen Raumkonstruktion und Graphik,” (PhD diss., Humboldt University of Berlin, 2005), http://edoc.hu-berlin.de/dissertationen/schellenberger-simona-2005-05-02/HTML/front.html.

102 For its reflection in art, see Ringbom, Sixten, “Devotional Images and Imaginative Devotions: Notes on the Place of Art in Late Medieval Private Piety,” Gazette des Beaux-Arts 73 (1969): 159–170 Google Scholar; and Scribner, Bob, “Popular Piety and Modes of Visual Perception in Late-Medieval and Reformation Germany,” Journal of Religious History 15, no. 4 (December 1989): 448–469 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

103 Stephan, “Lutherarchäologie,” in Luthers Lebenswelten, ed. Meller, Rhein, and Stephan, pp. 59–60, fig. 68–69.

104 Ibid., pp. 56–58, figs. 65–67.

105 Meller, et al, Martin Luther: Treasures of the Reformation, pp. 258–260, nos. 262–263.

106 Erhard Schön, Women of the Old Testament, woodcut, in Hollstein, Friedrich W. H., German Engravings, Etchings and Woodcuts ca.1400–1700 (Rotterdam: Sound & Vision, 2001), vol. 50, no. 66Google Scholar. For the theological implications of Eve, see Crowther, Kathleen M., Adam and Eve in the Protestant Reformation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 88–90 Google Scholar.

107 Stephan, “Lutherarchäologie,” in Luthers Lebenswelten, ed. Meller, Rhein, and Stephan, 55–56, fig. 65a–65b. For Schön's print, see Schneider, Norbert, Historienmalerei: vom Spätmittelalter bis zum 19. Jahrhundert (Köln: Böhlau, 2010), p. 20 Google Scholar, fig. 3.

108 Meller, et al, Martin Luther: Treasures of the Reformation, p. 259–260, nos. 263–264.

109 Krodel, Gottfried G., “Law, Order, and the Almighty Taler: The Empire in Action at the 1530 Diet of Augsburg,” The Sixteenth Century Journal 13, no. 2 (July 1982): 75–106 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

110 Sonja König, “Wandbrunnen, Wasserblasen, Wasserkästen,” in Luthers Lebenswelten, ed. Meller, Rhein, and Stephan, 101–111; König, Sonja, “Wandbrunnen – Wasserblasen – Wasserkästen,” in Keramik in Mitteldeutschland: Stand der Forschung und Perspektiven. 41. Internationales Hafnerei-Symposium des Arbeitskreises für Keramikforschung in Dresden, Deutschland, vom 21. September bis 27. September 2008, ed. Krabath, Stefan and Bittner, Verena (Dresden: Landesamt für Archäologie, 2012), 431–472 Google Scholar; Stephan, “Lutherarchäologie,” in Luthers Lebenswelten, ed. Meller, Rhein, and Stephan, 30–31; and Kluttig-Altmann, “Archäologische Funde von Grundstücken der Familie Cranach,” in Das ernestinische Wittenberg, ed. Lück, et al., 396–397.

111 Meller, et al, Martin Luther: Treasures of the Reformation, 245, no. 238.

112 For Dürer's woodcut broadsheet of the “Crucifixion with Mary and John” of 1493, see Mielke, Hans, Albrecht Dürer: Druckgraphik (Berlin: Hessling, 1970), 14, no. 4Google Scholar. For Martin Schöngauer's “Small Crucifixion” of 1473, see Wendland, Hans, Martin Schöngauer als Kupferstecher (Berlin: Edmund Meyer, 1907), no. B23Google Scholar.

113 For the history and interpretation of Christ's animated loin cloth (in the Cranachs’ crucifixion scenes), see Steinberg, Leo, The Sexuality of Christ in Renaissance Art and Modern Oblivion (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 91–96 Google Scholar; and Ozment, The Serpent and the Lamb, 36–42.

114 Meller, et al, Martin Luther: Treasures of the Reformation, pp. 243–244, no. 236.

115 Gutjahr, “Wie protestantisch ist Luthers Müll?,” in Religiosität in Mittelalter und Neuzeit, ed. Untermann, 47–48.

116 Lucas Cranach the Elder, Law and Grace, 1529, Stiftung Schloss Friedenstein Gotha, inv. no. SG 676, Cranach Digital Archive: http://lucascranach.org/DE_SMG_SG676.

117 For Law and Grace, see the exhaustive study of Fleck, Miriam Verena, Ein tröstlich gemelde: die Glaubensallegorie “Gesetz und Gnade” in Europa zwischen Spätmittelalter und Früher Neuzeit (Korb: Didymos, 2010)Google Scholar.

118 Meller, et al, Martin Luther: Treasures of the Reformation, p. 357, no. 370.

119 For the mocking of Jews in medieval crucifixion compositions, for instance in a crucifixion scene by Martin Schöngauer, see Wendland, Hans, Martin Schöngauer als Kupferstecher (Berlin: Edmund Meyer, 1907), 30 no. B24Google Scholar.

120 For the reconstruction of the wall fountain's front, see Gutjahr, , “Lutherarchäologie,” in Mitteldeutschland im Zeitalter der Reformation: Interdisziplinäre Tagung vom 22. bis 24. Juni 2012 in Halle (Saale), ed. Meller, Harald (Halle an der Saale: Landesamt für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt, 2014), 24 Google Scholar. For anti-Semitic late medieval and Renaissance imagery, see Blumenkranz, Bernhard, Juden und Judentum in der mittelalterlichen Kunst (Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer, 1965)Google Scholar; and Katz, Dana E., The Jew in the Art of the Italian Renaissance (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008)Google Scholar.

121 For Martin Luther's initially ambivalent and later hate-filled attitude toward Jews, see Kaufmann, Thomas, Luthers Juden (Stuttgart: Philipp Reclam, 2014), esp. 156–158 Google Scholar. For the domestic context of Martin and indeed Katharina Luther's anti-Semitism, see Peter Von der Osten-Sacken, “Martin Luther's Position on Jews and Judaism,” in Martin Luther and the Reformation, ed. Meller, et al, 323–330; and Dean Phillip Bell, “Martin Luther, the Jews, and Judaism: Theology and Politics in Context,” in Martin Luther and the Reformation, ed. Meller, et al, 331–339.

122 See Andrew Pettegree, “A Media Event,” in Martin Luther and the Reformation, ed. Meller, et al, 115–121; Berger, Daniel and Stieme, Sophia Linda, “Die Wittenberger Letternfunde aus der Bügermeisterstraße 5: Eine typografische, historische und materialkundliche Betrachtung,” in Glas, Steinzeug und Bleilettern aus Wittenberg, ed. Meller, Harald (Halle an der Saale: Landesamt für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt, 2014), 269–272 Google Scholar.

123 Daniel Berger, Mareike Greb, and Holger Rode, “Noten für den Reformator? Zur Untersuchung der Drucktypen aus dem Wittenberger Franziskanerkloster und ihr Zusammenhang mit dem Musikaliendruck der Reformationszeit,” in Fokus: Wittenberg, ed. Meller, 133.

124 The type from the excavations at Bürgermeisterstraße 5, for instance, could be assigned to Johann Krafft the Younger's workshop: Berger and Stieme, “Die Wittenberger Letternfunde aus der Bügermeisterstraße 5,” in Glas, Steinzeug und Bleilettern aus Wittenberg, ed. Meller, 267–364. For summary accounts, see Meller, et al, Martin Luther: Treasures of the Reformation, p. 283, no. 292; and Berger and Stieme, “Untersuchungen zum frühneuzeitlichen Buchdruck an Bleilettern aus Wittenberg,” in Mitteldeutschland im Zeitalter der Reformation, ed. Meller, 241–248.

125 Berger, Greb, and Rode, “Noten für den Reformator?,” in Fokus: Wittenberg, ed. Meller, 133–195; and Meller, et al, Martin Luther: Treasures of the Reformation, pp. 293–294, no. 302.

126 Kluttig-Altmann, “Archäologische Funde von Grundstücken der Familie Cranach,” in Das ernestinische Wittenberg, ed. Lück, et al., 363–399.

127 Ibid., 365–378.

128 Ibid., 368–374.

129 Ibid., 368–372.

130 Ibid., 372–374.

131 Ibid., 366–367; Johanna Reetz and Holger Rode, “Early Modern Domestic and Dining Culture in Wittenberg Reflected by Prestigious Archaeological Finds,” in Martin Luther and the Reformation, ed. Meller, et al, 144–145, with figs. 1 and 2.

132 For further finds from this site, see Kluttig-Altmann, “Archäologische Funde von Grundstücken der Familie Cranach,” in Das ernestinische Wittenberg, ed. Lück, et al., 378–387.

133 Ibid., 380–382.

134 Ibid., 392–398.

135 For Judith's role in Reformation iconography, see Meller, et al, Martin Luther: Treasures of the Reformation, p. 339, nos. 351, 352.

136 Meller, et al, Martin Luther: Treasures of the Reformation, pp. 272–274, nos. 279, 280.

137 Johanna Reetz “Judith und der Kaiser: Zeichen der Identifikation und Distinktion in einem Kachelkomplex aus Wittenberg,” in Mitteldeutschland im Zeitalter der Reformation, ed. Meller, 209–213; Kluttig-Altmann, “Archäologische Funde von Grundstücken der Familie Cranach,” in Das ernestinische Wittenberg, ed. Lück, et al., 394–395.

138 For the site as a whole, see Holger Rode, “Die Abfallgrube der Alchemistenwerkstatt und die anatomischen Befunde im aufgelassenen Wittenberger Franziskanerkloster,” in Alchemie und Wissenschaft des 16. Jahrhunderts: Fallstudien aus Wittenberg und vergleichbare Befunde; Internationale Tagung vom 3. bis 4. Juli 2015 in Halle (Saale), ed. Harald Meller, Alfred Reichenberger, and Christian-Heinrich Wunderlich (Halle an der Saale: Tagungen des Landesmuseums für Vorgeschichte, 2016), 29–44.

139 For the restoration of these fragile glasses, see Vera Keil, “Zur Restaurierung der Wittenberger Alchemiefunde,” in Alchemie und Wissenschaft des 16. Jahrhunderts, ed. Meller, Reichenberger, and Wunderlich, 45–58. For the function of the alchemist's vessels, see Christian-Heinrich Wunderlich, “Keine ‘Alchimei böser Buben’: Spagyrische Arzneiproduktion in Renaissance und Barock am Beispiel der Laborfunde von Wittenberg und Huysburg,” in Alchemie und Wissenschaft des 16. Jahrhunderts, ed. Meller, Reichenberger, and Wunderlich, 59–67.

140 For the products of this workshop, see Wunderlich, “Keine ‘Alchimei böser Buben,’” in Alchemie und Wissenschaft des 16. Jahrhunderts, ed. Meller, Reichenberger, and Wunderlich, 69–84.

141 Holger Rode dates the finds between 1525 and 1537: Rode, “Die Abfallgrube der Alchemistenwerkstatt,” in Alchemie und Wissenschaft des 16. Jahrhunderts, ed. Meller, Reichenberger, and Wunderlich, 39–40.

142 Others date it in the late sixteenth or first half of the seventeenth century: Hans-Georg Stephan, “Gläsernes und keramisches Laborgerät, Trinkgläser und Gebrauchskeramik des Wittenberger Alchemistenfundes: Aspekte der zeitlichen, kultur – und wissenschaftsgeschichtlichen Einordnung,” in Alchemie und Wissenschaft des 16. Jahrhunderts, ed. Meller, Reichenberger, and Wunderlich, 109–126. Andreas Stahl sees this workshop in connection with the interest of Duke August and Duchess Anna of Saxony in the second half of the sixteenth century: “Alchemistische Netzwerke in und um Wittenberg: Faust in Wittenberg?,” in Alchemie und Wissenschaft des 16. Jahrhunderts, ed. Meller, Reichenberger, and Wunderlich, 205–248.

143 Stahl, “Alchemistische Netzwerke in und um Wittenberg,” in Alchemie und Wissenschaft des 16. Jahrhunderts, ed. Meller, Reichenberger, and Wunderlich, 205–207.

144 Ibid., 224–225; and Meller, et al, Martin Luther: Treasures of the Reformation, p. 150, nos. 139–141.

145 Rode, “Die Abfallgrube der Alchemistenwerkstatt,” in Alchemie und Wissenschaft des 16. Jahrhunderts, ed. Meller, Reichenberger, and Wunderlich, 41–42.

146 Christian Meyer, Jens Brauer, Holger Rode, and Kurt W. Alt, “Menschliche Skelettfunde mit Spuren anatomischer Sektionen des frühen 16. Jahrhunderts und frühe Fälle von Syphilis aus der ehemaligen Franziskanerkirche in Wittenberg,” in Alchemie und Wissenschaft des 16. Jahrhunderts, ed. Meller, Reichenberger, and Wunderlich, 154–159.

147 Ibid., 159–163.

148 Rode, “Die Abfallgrube der Alchemistenwerkstatt,” in Alchemie und Wissenschaft des 16. Jahrhunderts, ed. Meller, Reichenberger, and Wunderlich, 42; and Meyer, Brauer, Rode, and Alt, “Menschliche Skelettfunde mit Spuren anatomischer Sektionen des frühen 16. Jahrhunderts,” in Alchemie und Wissenschaft des 16. Jahrhunderts, ed. Meller, Reichenberger, and Wunderlich, 153–171, esp. 163, 165–167, 169–171.