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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 02 October 2020
Expanding upon recent work on the heterogeneity of Catholicism and the challenges facing Tridentine reformers, this article examines local religion in two “extreme” settings: the village republic of Gersau in Central Switzerland and the missionary territory of the Custody of the Holy Land. Following conceptual remarks, the authors sketch the distinct secular contexts as well the phased evolution of localized networks for the administration of the cure of souls, the latter starting in the eleventh and sixteenth centuries, respectively. A consistently comparative approach reveals notable similarities—in terms of expanding spiritual provision and better record keeping—alongside substantial differences—especially between the clearly demarcated territorial parishes in the Alps and a more punctual system of sacrament centers in Palestine. At Gersau, where diocesan structures were weak, the church operated under the close supervision of a commune with extensive powers stretching to the rights of advowson and benefice administration. Around Jerusalem, the Franciscans—whose custos acted as the vicar apostolic—used material incentives to win over converts from other Christian denominations. Building on recent reassessments of the post-Tridentine Church, both examples thus underline the strong position of the laity in the confessional age and the need to acknowledge local sociopolitical as well as organizational factors in the formation of early modern Catholicism.
1 On differences between monastic, mendicant, and diocesan practices in medieval England, see Pfaff, Richard W., The Liturgy in Medieval England: A History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, esp. chap. 14. For early modern regional patterns, see: Hersche, Peter, “‘Klassizistischer’ Katholizismus: Der konfessionsgeschichtliche Sonderfall Frankreich,” Historische Zeitschrift 262 (1996): 357–389Google Scholar. On modern divisions, see Clark, Christopher and Kaiser, Wolfram, eds., Culture Wars: Secular-Catholic Conflict in Nineteenth-Century Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Lee, Michael E., Revolutionary Saint: The Theological Legacy of Óscar Romero (New York: Orbis, 2018)Google Scholar.
2 For an overview of major trends in Reformation historiography, see Holt, Mack P., “The Social History of the Reformation: Recent Trends and Future Agendas,” Journal of Social History 37, no. 1 (Fall 2003): 133–144CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hillerbrand, Hans J., “Was There a Reformation in the Sixteenth Century?,” Church History 72, no. 3 (September 2003): 525–552CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ehrenpreis, Stefan and Lotz-Heumann, Ute, Reformation und konfessionelles Zeitalter, 2nd ed. (Darmstadt: WBG, 2008)Google Scholar; and Dixon, C. Scott, Contesting the Reformation (Malden, Mass.: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012)Google Scholar.
3 See, for example, John Bossy, “The Counter-Reformation and the People of Catholic Europe,” Past and Present 47 (May 1970): 51–70; and G. W. Searle, The Counter Reformation (London: University of London Press, 1974).
4 Developed by Heinz Schilling and Wolfgang Reinhard on the basis of the concept of Konfessionsbildung (formation of confessions), proposed by Ernst Walter Zeeden in the late 1950s: Wolfgang Reinhard, “Reformation, Counter-Reformation, and the Early Modern State: A Reassessment,” Catholic Historical Review 75, no. 3 (July 1989): 383–404; Heinz Schilling, Religion, Political Culture and the Emergence of Early Modern Society: Essays in German and Dutch History (Leiden: Brill, 1992); and John M. Headley, Hans J. Hillerbrand, and Anthony J. Paplas, eds., Confessionalization in Europe, 1555–1700 (Aldershot: Ashgate 2004).
5 Hubert Jedin, “Catholic Reformation or Counter-Reformation,” in Counter-Reformation: The Essential Readings, ed. David M. Luebke (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 1999), 21–45; many scholars use the two words almost interchangeably. On the Catholic Reformation, see, for example, Michael A. Mullett, The Catholic Reformation (London: Routledge 1999); and Robert Bireley, The Refashioning of Catholicism, 1450–1700: A Reassessment of the Counter Reformation (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 1999). On alternative phrases, see John O'Malley, Trent and All That: Renaming Catholicism in the Early Modern Era (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000); and Marc R. Forster, Catholic Revival in the Age of the Baroque: Religious Identity in Southwest Germany, 1550–1750 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
6 See, for example, R. Po-chia Hsia, Social Discipline in the Reformation: Central Europe, 1550–1750 (London: Routledge, 1989).
7 See, for example, O'Malley, Trent and All That; and Marc Forster, Bruce Gordon, Joel Harrington, Thomas Kaufmann, Ute Lotz-Heumann, and Bridget Heal, “Forum: Religious History beyond Confessionalization,” German History 32, no. 4 (2014): 579–598.
8 Marc R. Forster, Counter-Reformation in the Villages: Religion and Reform in the Bishopric of Speyer, 1560–1720 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1992). For similar conclusions on Zwinglian Bern, see Heinrich Richard Schmidt, Dorf und Religion: Reformierte Sittenzucht in Berner Landgemeinden der Frühen Neuzeit (Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer, 1995).
9 Marc Venard, Le temps des confessions (1530–1620/30), vol. 8 of Histoire du Christianisme: Des origins à nos jours, ed. Jean-Marie Mayeur, Charles Pietri, André Vauchez, and Marc Venard (Paris: Desclée, 1992).
10 Ute Lotz-Heumann, Die doppelte Konfessionalisierung in Irland: Konflikt und Koexistenz im 16. und in der ersten Hälfte des 17. Jahrhunderts (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2000), 423, 434.
11 On the former, see, for example, Walter Ziegler, “Kritisches zur Konfessionalisierungsthese,” in Konfessionalisierung und Region, ed. Peer Frieß and Rolf Kießling (Konstanz: Universitätsverlag Konstanz, 1999), 41–53; and on the latter, see Marc R. Forster, “With and Without Confessionalization: Varieties of Early Modern German Catholicism,” Journal of Early Modern History 1, no. 4 (January 1997): 315–343.
12 J. Waterworth, ed. and trans., The Canons and Decrees of the Sacred and Œcumenical Council of Trent, Celebrated Under the Sovereign Pontiffs Paul III, Julius III, and Pius IV (London: Dolman, 1848), https://history.hanover.edu/texts/trent.html.
13 On Italy, see Agostino Borromeo, “I Vescovi Italiani e l'applicazione del Concilio di Trento,” in I Tempi del Concilio: Religione, cultura e società nell'Europa Tridentina, ed. Cesare Mozzarelli and Danilo Zardin (Rome: Bulzoni Editore, 1997), 27–101; and Peter Hersche, Italien im Barockzeitalter, 1600–1750: Eine Sozial- und Kulturgeschichte (Vienna: Böhlau Verlag, 1999).
14 Wolfgang Reinhard and Heinz Schilling, eds., Die Katholische Konfessionalisierung: Wissenschaftliches Symposion der Gesellschaft zur Herausgabe des Corpus Catholicorum und des Vereins für Reformationsgeschichte (Münster: Aschendorff Verlag, 1995); and Helen Rawlings, Church, Religion and Society in Early Modern Spain (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2002).
15 Andrew Spicer, “The Early Modern Parish Church: An Introduction,” in Parish Churches in the Early Modern World, ed. Andrew Spicer (London: Routledge, 2016), 1–30, esp. 5.
16 Werner Freitag, Pfarrer, Kirche und ländliche Gemeinschaft: Das Dekanat Vechta, 1400–1803 (Bielefeld: Verlag für Regionalgeschichte, 1998); Anne Bonzon, L'Esprit de clocher: Prêtres et paroisses dans le diocèse de Beauvais (1535–1650) (Paris: Les Éditions du Cerf, 1999); Rawlings, Church, Religion and Society in Early Modern Spain, chap. 4; and Wietse de Boer, The Conquest of the Soul: Confession, Discipline, and Public Order in Counter-Reformation Milan (Leiden: Brill, 2000).
17 See the various regional and extra-European contributions in Spicer, Parish Churches.
18 The classic case study is the Diocese of Speyer, discussed in Forster, Counter-Reformation in the Villages, esp. 20–41, 200–213; see also Andreas Holzem, Religion und Lebensformen: Katholische Konfessionalisierung im Sendgericht des Fürstbistum Münster, 1570–1800 (Paderborn: F. Schöningh, 2000); Lotz-Heumann, Die doppelte Konfessionalisierung in Irland, 407; and Frans Ciappara, “The Parish Community in Early Modern Malta,” Catholic Historical Review 94, no. 4 (October 2008): 671–694. Similar observations have been made for Protestantism. See C. Scott Dixon, The Reformation and Rural Society: The Parishes of Brandenburg-Ansbach-Kulmbach, 1528–1603 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). For general reassessments, see Heinrich Richard Schmidt, “Sozialdisziplinierung? Ein Plädoyer für das Ende des Etatismus in der Konfessionalisierungsforschung,” Historische Zeitschrift 265 (1997): 639–682; and Ute Lotz-Heumann, “Imposing Church and Social Discipline,” in The Cambridge History of Christianity, vol. 6, Reform and Expansion, 1500–1660, ed. R. Po-Chia Hsia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 244–260.
19 For a recent “global” survey, see Simon Ditchfield, “Catholic Reformation and Renewal,” in The Oxford Illustrated History of the Reformation, ed. Peter Marshall (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 152–185.
20 On this debate, see Karen Melvin, “The Globalization of Reform,” in The Ashgate Research Companion to the Counter-Reformation, ed. Alexandra Bamji, Geert H. Janssen, and Mary Laven (Ashgate: Aldershot, 2013), 391–405; see also, Alison Forrestal and Seán Alexander Smith, “Re-thinking Missionary Catholicism for the Early Modern Era,” in The Frontiers of Mission: Perspectives on Early Modern Missionary Catholicism, ed. Alison Forrestal and Seán Alexander Smith (Leiden: Brill, 2016), 1–21, esp. 8.
21 Paulo Broggio, Charlotte Castelnau-L'Estoile, and Giovanni Pizzorusso, “Le temps des doutes: Les sacrements et l’Église romaine aux dimensions du monde,” Mélanges de l’École française de Rome, 121, no. 1 (2009): 5–22.
22 Simon Ditchfield, “Decentering the Catholic Reformation: Papacy and Peoples in the Early Modern World,” Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte 101, no. 1 (October 2010): 186–208; and Simon Ditchfield, “San Carlo Borromeo in the Construction of Roman Catholicism as a World Religion,” Studia Borromaica 25 (2011), 3–23.
23 A similar point is made by Melvin, “Globalization of Reform,” 391–405.
24 In Palestine: Registrazioni miste, vol. 1, 25 December 1616–20 December 1671, Sacramenti, Betlemme Santa Caterina, Parrocchie, Archivio storico della Custodia di Terra santa, Jerusalem (hereafter cited as ASCTS). While recording of sacraments may have conceivably started before, the earliest extant registers for Gersau are in Pfarreibuch, vol. 3, Parish Archive, Gersau (hereafter cited as PAG). Included in this volume are the following registers: Book of Baptisms (1627–1807), Book of Marriages (1627–1807), Book of Confirmations (1693–1807), and Book of Deaths (Sterbebuch) (1733–1807).
25 Within the Gersau District Archive (hereafter cited as BAG), these materials are found in three collections: Urkunden, Bücher, and Briefe.
26 On the custom of making deposits for posterity in balls located on top of church towers, see Beat Kümin, “Nachrichten für die Nachwelt: Turmkugelarchive in der Erinnerungskultur des deutschsprachigen Europa,”Historische Zeitschrift (forthcoming). The respective Gersau documents appear in Josef Wiget, ed., “Die Turmkugel-Dokumente der Pfarrkirche Gersau,”Mitteilungen des Historischen Vereins des Kantons Schwyz 76 (1984): 161–175.
27 Pietro Verniero di Montepeloso, Croniche o Annali di Terra Santa, ed. Girolamo Golubovich, Biblioteca bio-bibliografica della Terra Santa e dell'Oriente Francescano, Nuova serie – Documenti, vols. 6–10 (Florence: Quaracchi, 1929–1936); and Francesco da Serino, Croniche o Annali di Terra Santa, ed. Teodoro. Cavallon, Biblioteca bio-bibliografica della Terra Santa e dell'Oriente Francescano, Nuova serie – Documenti, vols. 11–12 (Florence: Quaracchi, 1939).
28 Doubts submitted by the Custos of the Custody of the Holy Land, fasc. 9, 10, UV 50, Stanza Storica (hereafter abbreviated as St. St.), Archivio della Congregazione per la Dottrina della Fede, Rome (hereafter cited as ACDF).
29 Terra Santa e Cipro, vol. 1, Scritture riferite ai congressi (hereafter cited as SC), Archivio Storico della Congregazione De Propaganda Fide (hereafter cited as ASCPF), Rome; Terra Santa e Cipro, Miscellanea 1: I conti di Terra Santa, SC, ASCPF; and Vols. 104, 242, 135, Scritture originali riferite alle congregazioni generali (hereafter cited as SOCG), ASCPF.
30 “My-Parish,” University of Warwick, http://warwick.ac.uk/my-parish.
31 This paragraph is based on Albert Müller, Gersau: Unikum in der Schweizer Geschichte (Baden: Hier and Jetzt, 2013); and Beat Kümin, Imperial Villages: Cultures of Political Freedom in the German Lands c. 1300–1800 (Leiden: Brill, 2019), 39–43. An older, survey in English can be found in W. A. B. Coolidge, “The Republic of Gersau,” English Historical Review 4, no. 15 (July 1889): 481–515.
32 These imperial charters are documented in the Regesta Imperii Online, see “RI XI Sigmund (1410–1437) - RI XI, 1,” Regesta Imperii Online, http://www.regesta-imperii.de/id/1418-09-16_1_0_11_1_0_3930_3470; and “RI XI Sigmund (1410–1437) - RI XI, 2,” Regesta Imperii Online, http://www.regesta-imperii.de/id/1433-10-31_4_0_11_2_0_3905_9724. The latter survives in Confirmation of Privileges by Emperor Sigismund, 31 October 1433, Urkunden, no. 8, BAG.
33 Copy of a Land Assessment, 13 March 1510, Urkunden, no. 18, BAG.
34 On the Catholic missionary activity in the Ottoman Middle East, see Charles Frazee, Catholics and Sultans: The Church and the Ottoman Empire, 1453–1923 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); and Bernard Heyberger, Les Chrétiens du Proche-Orient au temps de la Réforme catholique (Rome: École française de Rome, 1994).
35 On village organization and leaders, see Amy Singer, Palestinian Peasants and Ottoman Officials: Rural Administration around Sixteenth-Century Jerusalem (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 30–32. On seventeenth-century Palestinian History, see Dror Ze'evi, An Ottoman Century: The District of Jerusalem in the 1600s (New York: State University of New York Press, 1996).
36 Lotz-Heumann, “Imposing Church and Social Discipline,” 247.
37 Jacob Norris, “Dragomans, Tattooists, Artisans: Palestinian Christians and their Encounters with Catholic Europe in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries,” Journal of Global History 14, no. 1 (March 2019): 68–86. On the Franciscans’ participation in the local economy, see Felicita Tramontana, “Trading in Spiritual and Earthly Goods: Franciscans in Semi-Rural Palestine,” in Catholic Missionaries in Early Modern Asia: Patterns of Localization, ed. Nadine Amsler, Andreea Badea, Bernard Heyberger, and Christian Windler (London: Routledge, 2019), 126–141.
38 Albert Müller, “Gersau,” in Historisches Lexikon der Schweiz, last modified 8 December 2006, http://www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/textes/d/D711.php. The church is dedicated to Pope St. Marcellus.
39 The formation of the parish network in the Lake Lucerne region is traced in P. Iso Müller, “Die Entstehung der Pfarreien an den Ufern des Vierwaldstättersees,” Der Geschichtsfreund 117 (1964): 5–59, esp. 18–19 on Gersau. On parish formation and organization in England, Italy, and the Holy Roman Empire, see “Regionale Überblicke,” in Pfarreien in der Vormoderne: Identität und Kultur im Niederkirchenwesen Europas, ed. Michele C. Ferrari and Beat Kümin (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2017), 25–136.
40 The alliance with the Forest Cantons of 1359, for example, was entered into by the “kilchgenossen gemeinlich von Gersovwa”: League of the Forest Cantons, 31 August 1359, Urkunden, no. 3, BAG.
41 For examples of dispensations for nonresidence at Gersau, see Protocollum Proclamationum et Investiturarum, 1469–1474, f. 35r (1470), f. 48r (1471), Amtsbücher, HA 107, Erzbischöfliches Archiv, Freiburg im Breisgau. The grant of a papal indulgence for all benefactors of the Gersau church is documented in Letter of Indulgence from Rome, 1504, Urkunden, no. 16, BAG.
42 Purchase of Advowson, 4 October 1483, Urkunden no. 12, BAG.
43 Late medieval church developments in this highly autonomous area are surveyed in Carl Pfaff, “Pfarrei und Pfarreileben: Ein Beitrag zur spätmittelalterlichen Kirchengeschichte,” in Innerschweiz und frühe Eidgenossenschaft: Jubiläumsschrift 700 Jahre Eidgenossenschaft, ed. Historischer Verein der Fünf Orte, (Olten: Walther, 1990), 1:203–282.
44 For a comparative situating of this religious regime, see Beat Kümin, “Gersau, Innerschweiz und Europa: Kirchenmodelle im Zeitalter der Reformationen,” Der Geschichtsfreund 171 (2018): 9–20. On the “typical” features of early modern Catholicism in the neighboring Forest Canton of Schwyz, cf. Stefan Jäggi, “Religion und Kirche im Alltag,” in Die Geschichte des Kantons Schwyz, vol. 3, Herren und Bauern (1550 bis 1712), ed. Historischer Verein des Kantons Schwyz (Zurich: Chronos, 2012), 243–271.
45 Paolo Pieraccini, Il Ristabilimento del Patriarcato latino di Gerusalemme e la Custodia di Terra Santa: La dialettica istituzionale al tempo del primo patriarca Mons. Giuseppe Valerga (1847–1872) (Jerusalem: Franciscan Centre of Christian Oriental Studies, 2006), 20–34.
46 Leonardi Lemmens, Collectanea Terrae Sanctae ex Archivo Hierosolymitano deprompta, ed. Girolamo Golubovich, Biblioteca bio-bibliografica, vol. 14 (Florence: Quaracchi, 1933), 312–214.
47 Pieraccini, Il ristabilimento del Patriarcato latino di Gerusalemme, 53.
48 SOCG, 242:62v, ASCPF. On the friars’ missionary activity in Palestine, see Lucette Valensi, “Inter-Communal Relations and Changes in Religious Affiliation in the Middle East (Seventeenth to Nineteenth Centuries),” Comparative Studies in Society and History 39, no. 2 (April 1997): 251–269; and Felicita Tramontana, Passages of Faith: Conversion in Palestinian Villages (17th Century) (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2014), 86–110.
49 Andrew Redden, “Heaven on Earth: Churches in Early Modern Hispanic America,” in Spicer, Parish Churches, 243–266; and Ruth Barbour, “Pinpointing Catholics in Eighteenth-Century Warwickshire,” Midland Catholic History 24 (2017): 24–42. On Franciscan missions in the Viceroyalty of New Spain, see also Adriaan C. van Oss, Catholic Colonialism: A Parish History of Guatemala, 1524–1821 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986); and, more recently, Karen Melvin, Building Colonial Cities of God: Mendicant Orders and Urban Culture in New Spain, 1570–1800 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford, 2012).
50 On the limits of the Propaganda Fides's authority in territories of the Spanish Crown, see Giovanni Pizzorusso, “Propaganda Fide e le missioni cattoliche sulla frontiera politica, etnica e religiosa delle Antille nel XVII secolo,” Mélanges de l’école française de Rome 109, no. 2 (1997): 581–599.
51 Basilius Pandžić, “L'interesse della Sacra Congregazione per la Terra Santa,” in Sacrae Congregationis de Propaganda Fide memoria rerum: 350 anni a servizio delle missioni, ed. Joseph Metzler, vol. 2, 1700–1815 (Rome: Herder, 1973), 416.
52 Canon 21, “The Canons of the Fourth Lateran Council, 1215,” in Internet Medieval Sourcebook, ed. Paul Halsall, Internet History Sourcebooks Project, http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/lateran4.asp.
53 Jäggi, “Religion und Kirche im Alltag,” 259.
54 For medieval parish life in the Holy Roman Empire, see Enno Bünz, Die mittelalterliche Pfarrei: Ausgewählte Studien zum 13.–16. Jahrhundert (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2017). For Italy and France, see Agostino Paravicini Bagliani and Véronique Pasche, eds., La parrocchia nel medioevo: Economia, scambi, solidarietà (Rome: Herder, 1995).
55 Jerzy Kloczowski, “Communautés rurales et communautés paroissiales en Europe médiévale et moderne,” in Les communautés rurales, vol. 4, Europe occidentale: Italie, Espagne, France, Recueils de la Société Jean Bodin 43 (Paris: Dessain et Tolra, 1984), 87–106.
56 The earliest record for the foundation story of the Mary Helper chapel can be found in Johann Leopold Cysat, Beschreibung deß Beru(e)hmbten Lucerner= oder 4. Waldsta(e)tten Sees [. . .] (Lucerne: David Hautten, 1661), 235–236. On the herdsmen church of St. Joseph, see Documents relating to the ownership and maintenance of Käppeliberg Chapel, 1754, Sammlung der Pfrundbriefe, 65–68, Bücher, BAG. The communal election of the kaplan or assistant priest is documented in Notes on clerical appointments, 1684, Stiftsurkundenbuch, 322, Bücher, BAG.
57 Kümin, “Gersau,” 17.
58 Kümin, Imperial Villages, chap. 5. On the rarity of rural communal patronage, see Dietrich Kurze, Pfarrerwahlen im Mittelalter: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Gemeinde und des Niederkirchenwesens (Cologne-Graz: Böhlau Verlag, 1966), 435.
59 Benefice Contracts, 1726 and 1762, Urkunden, no. 43, BAG. Local customs included regular evening performances of the Salve Regina, weekly rehearsals of church benefactors, and invitations issued to guest preachers on special occasions.
60 The process emerges from the following letters between Gersau and diocesan officials in 1720–1726: Council of Gersau to the Vicar General of Konstanz, n.d., Briefe 1700–1800, no. 29, BAG; Commissary of the Bishop of Konstanz to the Council of Gersau, summer 1720, Briefe 1700–1800, no. 30, BAG; Parson of Oberarth to the Council of Gersau, 5 August 1720, Briefe 1700–1800, no. 32, BAG; Vicar General of Konstanz to the Council of Gersau, 17 September 1720, Briefe 1700–1800, no. 39, BAG; Suffragan Bishop of Konstanz to the Council of Gersau, 12 July 1726, Briefe 1700–1800, no. 41, BAG; and Dismissal of 11 July 1726, Protokolle des Geistlichen Rats, 1725–1727, pp. 240–241, Amtsbücher, HA 223, Erzbischöfliches Archiv.
61 Gustav Nigg, “Verzeichnis der Pfarrherren der Kirche St. Marzellus Gersau,” Mitteilungen des Historischen Vereins des Kantons Schwyz 87 (1995): 109–114, esp. 110.
62 Wilhelm Oechsli, ed., Quellenbuch zur Schweizergeschichte: Für Haus und Schule, 2nd ed. (Zurich: Schultess, 1901), 461–469.
63 See, for example, SOCG, 135:237, ASCPF.
64 Oss, Catholic Colonialism, 25.
65 Leonardo Lemmens, Acta S. Congregationis de Propaganda Fide pro Terra Sancta, vol. 1, 1622–1720, ed. Girolamo Golubovich, Biblioteca bio-bibliografica, vol. 1 (Florence: Quaracchi, 1921), 101. See also SOCG 135:237, ASCPF.
66 On the recipients of charity, see Verniero di Montepeloso, Croniche o Annali di Terra Santa, vol. 4, Supplemento, Biblioteca bio-bibliografica, vol. 9, 174–182. See Tramontana, Passages of Faith, 101–103.
67 Terra Santa e Cipro, vol. 1, 336v.
68 Jäggi, “Religion und Kirche im Alltag,” 259; and List of Clergymen, 1785, Bistum Konstanz, Visitationen, nos. 50–52, Akten 1, 577.006, Archiv 1, Staatsarchiv Schwyz.
69 For building history and furnishings, see Michael Tomaschett, Die Pfarrkirche St. Marcellus in Gersau (Bern: Gesellschaft für Schweizerische Kunstgeschichte, 2013).
70 Jahrzeitbuch (1627), Pfarreibuch, no. 1, PAG; and Nigg, “Pfarrherren,” 110–111, esp. the reference to Soul Sunday from 1727.
71 Further details in Kümin, Imperial Villages, chap. 5.
72 Eleonora Destefanis, “Accessibilità ed esclusione negli spazi cultuali: Il ruolo degli arredi liturgici fissi e mobili,” in Martiri, santi, patroni: Per una archeologia della devozione; Atti X Congresso Nazionale di Archeologia Cristiana, ed. Adele Coscarella and Paola De Santis (Cosenza: Università della Calabria, 2012), 137–153. See also Sible de Blaauw, Cultus et decor: Liturgia e architettura nella Roma tardoantica e medievale; Basilica Salvatoris, Sanctae Mariae, Sancti Petri (Vatican City: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, 1994); and George Galavaris, “Some Aspects of Symbolic Use of Lights in the Eastern Church: Candles, Lamps and Ostrich Eggs,” Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies, 4 (1978): 69–78.
73 Carlo Borromeo, Istructionum Fabricae et supellectilis Eclesiasticae (Milan, 1577). For Evelyn Carol Voelker's English translation, see Evelyn Carol Voelker, “Charles Borromeo's Instructiones Fabricae et supellectilis Ecclesiasticae, 1577: Book I and Book II; A Translation with Commentary and Analysis,” http://evelynvoelker.com/.
74 The guardian between 1652 and 1659 was Mariano da Madeo. See Terra Santa e Cipro, Miscellanea 1, unpaginated; and Felicita Tramontana, “‘Per ornamento e servizio di questi Santi Luoghi’: L'arrivée des objets de devotion dans les sanctuaires de Terre Sainte (xviie siècle),” Archives de sciences sociales des religions 183, no. 3 (2018): 235–237.
75 See Council of Trent, session 24, decree on the reformation of marriage, chap. 1; and Rituale Romanum (Rome, 1614), 347–353. For a general introduction to these sources in a different confessional context, see Will Coster, “Popular Religion and the Parish Register, 1538–1603,” in The Parish in English Life, 1400–1600, ed. Katherine L. French, Gary G. Gibbs, and Beat A. Kümin (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1997), 94–111.
76 The ruling of the Council of Trent on matrimonial law (1563).
77 See, for example, Doubts submitted by the Custos of the Custody of the Holy Land, fasc. 9, 10, UV 50, St. St., ACDF; and Doubts submitted by the Custos of the Custody of the Holy Land, fasc. 21, UV 48, St. St. ACDF.
78 See, for example, Terra Santa e Cipro, SC, ASCPF.
79 Registrazioni miste, vol. 2, 7 October 1669–19 June 1735, 28 August 1672, Registrum coniugatorum et defunctorum huius parochiae S. Catarinae Bethlehem Judae civitatis David ab anno 1669, p. 1, Sacramenti, Betlemme Santa Caterina, Parrocchie, ASCTS.
80 Registrazioni miste, vol. 2, Registrum coniugatorum, 19, 20. On mixed marriages in Bethlehem, see Felicita Tramontana, “Geographical Mobility and Community-Building in Seventeenth-Century Palestine: Insights from the Records of Bethlehem's Catholic Parish,” Continuity and Change 35, no. 2 (July 2020): 163–185.
81 Tramontana, Passages of Faith, 98–100; and see the sources in note 77, which contain doubts submitted by the custos on the participation of hidden Catholics in the ceremonies of their former churches.
82 Tramontana, Passages of Faith, 99–100. On the problem of the communicatio in sacris, see Heyberger, Les Chrétiens du Proche-Orient, 77, 79, 386; and Bruce Masters, Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Arab World: The Roots of Secularism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 88.
83 See Reinhard, “Reformation, Counter-Reformation, and the Early Modern State,” 383–404.
84 In this respect, the Gersau example can stand for the Catholic Forest Cantons of the Swiss Alps more generally. Comparable communal control over a Protestant regime emerged in the northern German land of Dithmarschen (until its conquest by neighboring princes in 1559); see Kümin, Beat, “Kirchgenossen an der Macht: Vormoderne politische Kultur in den ‘Pfarreirepubliken’ von Gersau und Dithmarschen,” Zeitschrift für historische Forschung 41, no. 2 (2014): 187–230CrossRefGoogle Scholar.