1. Wilberforce quoted from Hilton, Boyd, The Age of Atonement: The Influence of Evangelicalism on Social and Economic Thought, 1785–1865 (Oxford, 1988), p. 57;Google Scholarreactions of Castlereagh and Canning cited in Brown, Stewart J., Thomas Chalmers and the Godly Commonwealth in Scotland (Oxford, 1982), p. 109.Google Scholar

2. Brown, , Thomas Chalmers, p. 271.Google Scholar

3. Quotations from Hilton, , Age of Atonement, p. 55; on the OxfordD.C.L.Google Scholar, Chadwick, Owen, “Chalmers and the State,” in The Practical and the Pious: Essays on Thomas Chalmers (1780–1847), ed. Cheyne, A. C. (Edinburgh, U.K., 1985), p. 68.Google Scholar

4. Aid for starting in on this question is provided by Hilton, , Age of Atonement, p. 85; andGoogle ScholarBrown, , Thomas Chalmers, pp. 162, 340–341, 377.Google Scholar

5. Chalmers, , Institutes of Theology, vols. 7 and 8 of Posthumous Works of the Rev. Thomas Chalmers, ed. Hanna, William (Edinburgh, U.K., 1849), 7:294–295, 325–336.Google Scholar

6. See especially Carwardine, Richard, Transatlantic Revivalism: Popular Evangelicalism in Britain and America, 1790–1865 (Westport, Conn., 1978).Google ScholarFor further notice of transatlantic connections, plus extensive bibliography, see Noll, Mark A., Bebbington, David W., and Rawlyk, George A., eds., Evangelicalism: Comparative Studies of Popular Protestantism in North America, the British Isles, and Beyond, 1700–1990 (New York, 1994).Google Scholar

7. Besides Brown's authoritative biography, Thomas Chalmers, good accounts of his life are offered by Blaikie, William Garden in Dictionary of National Biography (London, 1917), 3:1358–1363;Google ScholarCheyne, A. C. in Dictionary of Scottish Church History and Theology, ed. de, Nigel M.Cameron, S. et al. , (Edinburgh, U.K., 1993), pp. 158–161; andGoogle ScholarMcCaffrey, John, “The Life of Thomas Chalmers,” in The Practical and the Pious, pp. 31–64.Google Scholar

8. Cheyne, , “Thomas Chalmers: Then and Now,” in The Practical and the Pious, p. 10.Google Scholar

9. This list modifies a similar summation in Hilton, , Age of Atonement, p. 56.Google Scholar

10. Chalmers, , A Series of Discourses on the Christian Revelation Viewed in Connection with the Modern Astronomy (1817), andGoogle ScholarOn the Power, Wisdom and Goodness of God, as Manifested in the Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Constitution of Man (Bridgewater Treatise No. 1, 1833);Google Scholarsee also Cairns, David, “Thomas Chalmers' Astronomical Discourses: A Study in Natural Theology?” Scottish journal of Theology 9 (1956): 410–421.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

11. Chalmers, , On Natural Theology (1836);Google Scholarsee also Rice, Daniel F., “Natural Theology and the Scottish Philosophy in the Thought of Thomas Chalmers,” Scottish journal of Theology 24 (1971): 23–46; andCrossRefGoogle ScholarRice, , “An Attempt at Systematic Reconstruction in the Theology of Thomas Chalmers,” Church History: Studies in Christianity and Culture 48 (June 1979): 174–188.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

12. Chalmers, , The Application of Christianity to the Commercial and Ordinary Affairs of Life (1820);Google Scholarsee also McCaffrey, John F., “Thomas Chalmers and Social Change,” Scottish Historical Review 60 (1981): 32–60; andGoogle ScholarMacleod, Donald, “Thomas Chalmers and Pauperism,” in Scotland in the Age of the Disruption, ed. Brown, Stewart J. and Fry, Michael (Edinburgh, U.K., 1993), pp. 63–76.Google Scholar

13. Quotation from John Lalor in Hilton, Age of Atonement, p. 56. Chalmers, , The Christian and Civic Economy of Large Towns, 3 vols. (1821–1826), andGoogle ScholarOn Political Economy in Connexion with the Moral State and Moral Prospects of Society (1832); besides extensive coverage in Hilton, , Age of Atonement, andGoogle ScholarBrown, , Thomas ChalmersGoogle Scholar, see also Hilton, , “Chalmers as Political Economist,” in The Practical and the Pious, pp. 141–156; andGoogle ScholarWaterman, A. M. C., Revolution, Economics and Religion: Christian Political Economy, 1798–1833 (Cambridge, U.K., 1991), pp. 217–252.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

14. Chalmers, , Institutes of Theology (1849);Google Scholarsee also Voges, Friedhelm, “Chalmers' Thinking Habits: Some Lessons from his Theology,” in The Practical and the Pious, pp. 157–173;Google ScholarRoxborogh, John, “Chalmers' Theology of Mission,” in The Practical and the Pious., pp. 174–185; andGoogle ScholarVoges, , Das Denken von Thomas Chalmers in Kirchen- und Sozialgeschichtlichen Konlext (Frankfurt, Germany, 1984).Google Scholar

15. Chalmers, , Lectures on the Establishment and Extension of the National Church, Delivered in London (1838);Google Scholarsee also Brown, , “The Ten Years' Conflict and the Disruption of 1843,” in Scotland in the Age of the Disruption, pp. 1–27.Google Scholar

16. Information on Chalmers's publications in the United States is from American Bibliography [1801–1819], ed. Shaw, Ralph R. and Shoemaker, Richard H. (New York, 1958–1963); andGoogle ScholarA Checklist of American Imprints [1820–1844] (New York, 1964–1993).Google Scholar

17. Faust, Drew Gilpin, A Sacred Circle: The Dilemma of the Intellectual in the Old South, 1840–1860 (Baltimore, Md., 1977), p. 68; andGoogle ScholarFarmer, James Oscar Jr, The Metaphysical Confederacy: James Henley Thornwell and the Synthesis of Southern Values (Macon, Ga., 1986), p. 137.Google Scholar

18. The Memoirs of Charles G. Finney: The Complete Restored Text, ed. Rosell, Garth M. and Dupuis, Richard A. G. (Grand Rapids, Mich., 1989), p. 296 n. 70.Google Scholar

19. Smith, Joseph T., Eighty Years: Embracing a History of Presbyterians in Baltimore (Philadelphia, Pa., 1899), pp. 21–22.1 am grateful to William Sutton for this and the next reference.Google Scholar

20. Mutual Rights and Methodist Protestants, 15 April 1831, p. 114; see also the previous issue for further commendations of Chalmers, , 8 April 1831, pp. 104–105.Google Scholar

21. Anon., “Dr. Chalmers on Predestination,” Spirit of the Pilgrims 5 (March 1832): 169–172.Google Scholar

22. Thornwell, J. H., “The General Assembly of 1847,” in The Collected Writings of James Henley Thornwell (1873; Edinburgh, U.K., 1975), 4:485; andGoogle ScholarHodge, Charles, “Support of the Clergy,” Biblical Repertory and Princeton Review 19 (July 1847): 361.Google Scholar

23. Taylor, Nathaniel William, Lectures on the Moral Government of God (New York, 1859), 1:135, 219, 264.1 am grateful for this notice to Bryan Bademan.Google Scholar

24. Alexander, Archibald and Alexander, James Waddel, “The Works of Dr. Chalmers,” Biblical Repertory and Princeton Review 13 (01 1841): 30–54, quotation from p. 50; andGoogle ScholarAlexander, James Waddel, “Chalmers on Education and Ecclesiastical Economy,” Biblical Repertory and Princeton Review 14 (10 1842): 562–583.Google Scholar

25. Documentation for the affection that Americans of Scottish and Scotch-Irish descent, especially in the South, bore to Chalmers is found in Shepperson, George, ed.Google Scholar, “Thomas Chalmers, the Free Church of Scotland, and the South,” Journal of Southern History 17 (1951): 517–532. But these marks of affection, as recorded by Shepperson, seem mostly devoid of substantial intellectual content.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

26. Edwards, Bela Bates, Discourse on the Life and Character of Thomas Chalmers [delivered 18 July 1847] (Andover, Mass., 1847), with quotations on p. 7.Google Scholar

27. , J. M. S., “Chalmers's Memoirs,” Bibliotheca Sacra 8 (01 1851): 229.Google Scholar

28. Manning, J. M., “The Theology of Dr. Chalmers,” Bibliotheca Sacra (13 July 1856): 477–519.Google ScholarOn the shape of theology as construed by New England's E. A. Park in opposition to Unitarianism and Princeton Presbyterianism, see Foster, Frank Hugh, A Genetic History of the New England Theology (Chicago, 1907), pp. 471–540.Google Scholar

29. Anon., “Chalmers,” Presbyterian Quarterly Review 1 (September 1852): 184, 201.Google Scholar

30. Anon., “Chalmers and Channing,” Presbyterian Quarterly Review 2 (December 1853): 438–449.Google Scholar

31. Anon., “The Church and the Poor in Great Cities,” Presbyterian Quarterly Review 2 (December 1853): 433–451.Google Scholar

32. Alexander, Archibald, “Chalmers' Mental and Moral Philosophy,”Biblical Repertory and Princeton Review 20 (October 1848): 529–542, quotation p. 530.Google Scholar

33. Anon., “Critical Notices,” Southern Presbyterian Review no. 15 (April 1852): 602.Google Scholar

34. Smyth, Thomas, “The Late Dr. Chalmers, and the Lessons of His Life, from Personal Recollections,” Southern Presbyterian Review 1, no. 3 (12 1847): 73, 71.Google Scholar

35. See Shepperson, , “The Free Church and American Slavery,” Scottish Historical Review 30 (1951): 126–143; andGoogle ScholarRice, C. Duncan, The Scots Abolitionists, 1833–1861 (Baton Rouge, La., 1981).Google Scholar

36. Anon., “Rev. Thomas Chalmers,” Methodist Review 31 (October 1849): 594–620, quotation p. 619.Google Scholar

37. Anon., “Short Reviews,” Methodist Quarterly Review, 4th ser., 5 (01 1853): 141.Google Scholar

38. Incidental references to Chalmers or brief, noncommittal notices of his work are also found in Bibliotheca Sacra 3 (May 1846): 266, 272;Google ScholarBibliotheca Sacra 8 (April 1851): 460;Google ScholarMethodist Quarterly Review, 4th ser., 4 (July 1852): 344;Google ScholarMethodist Quarterly Review 5 (July 1853): 469–470;Google ScholarMethodist Quarterly Review 6 (July 1854): 480;Google ScholarMethodist Quarterly Review 16 (October 1864): 699;Google ScholarBiblical Repertory and Princeton Review 25 (July 1853): 531–532;Google ScholarAmerican Theological Review 3 (01 1861): 40;Google ScholarAmerican Theological Review 4 (July 1862): 423; andGoogle ScholarAmerican Theological Review, new ser., 2 (July 1864): 521.Google Scholar

39. Wayland, Francis, Memoir of the Christian Labors, Pastoral and Philanthropic, of Thomas Chalmers (Boston, Mass., 1864), pp. 210, 211.Google Scholar

40. Hanley, Mark Y., Beyond a Christian Commonwealth: The Protestant Quarrel with the American Republic, 1830–1860 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1994), pp. 35–40, 101–104.Google Scholar

41. Boardman, George N., “Political Economy and the Christian Ministry,” Bibliotheca Sacra 23 (01 1866): 73–107, quotation p. 80.Google ScholarHilton, Boyd, “Chalmers as Political Economist,” p. 148, suggests that Horace Bushnell's sermon, “How to be a Christian in Trade,” was indebted to Chalmers, but I find it much more optimistic and expansionary than Chalmers's views; Chalmers is not mentioned in this sermon.Google ScholarSee Bushnell, Horace, in Sermons on Living Subjects (New York, 1892), pp. 243–267.Google Scholar

42. Gladden, Washington, Social Salvation (Boston, Mass., 1902), p. 237; andGoogle ScholarGladden, , The Christian Pastor and the Working Church (New York, 1906), p. 450.Google ScholarFor Gladden's repudiation of Malthus, see Tools and the Man: Prosperity and Industry under the Christian Law (Boston, Mass., 1893), p. 34.Google Scholar

43. Henderson, Charles R., “A Half Century After Thomas Chalmers,” The American Journal of Theology 4 (01 1900): 52, 62, 63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

44. Richmond, Mary E., Social Diagnosis (New York, 1917), p. 28 and note.Google Scholar

45. Quoted in Hoeveler, J. David Jr, James McCosh and the Scottish Intellectual Tradition: From Glasgow to Princeton (Princeton, N.J., 1981), p. 52. I take my understanding of McCosh from Hoeveler's biography and fromGoogle ScholarLivingstone, David N., Darwin's Forgotten Defenders (Edinburgh, U.K., 1987), pp. 106–112. For his own commentary on Chalmers, seeGoogle ScholarMcCosh, James, The Scottish Philosophy, Biographical, Expository, Critical, from Hutcheson to Hamilton (New York, 1875), pp. 393–406Google Scholar

46. On Chalmers's early friendship with Strachan, see the article by Craig, G. M. in Dictionary of Canadian Biography, 1861–1870 (Toronto, Ont., 1976), 9:752.Google ScholarChalmers, wrote to Strachan on 1 May 1841, regretfully to decline an invitation to come to Canada. In the same letter, Chalmers expressed his desire to hew a “middle path between Puseyism on the one hand and Voluntaryism on the other,” which seems to have been Strachan's general goal as well; Selection from the Correspondence of Chalmers, pp. 360–362, quotation p. 361.Google Scholar

47. See, for example, Strachan, to Chalmers, , 9 October 1826 and 29 January 1827, from microfilm of Thomas Chalmers Papers, New College Library, Edinburgh University, at United Church Archives, Toronto. I am grateful to Michael Gauvreau for these references.Google Scholar

48. See Vaudry, Richard W., The Free Church in Victorian Canada, 1844–1861 (Waterloo, Ont., 1989); andGoogle ScholarMurison, Barbara C., “The Disruption and the Colonies of Scottish Settlement,” in Scotland in the Age of the Disruption, pp. 135–150.Google Scholar

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53. The only nineteenth-century American moral crises comparable to what took place in Britain from roughly 1815 to 1845 were varieties of disillusionment after the Civil War. But these differed dramatically for the North and the South and were never as pervasive among the intellectual elite as had been the case earlier in Britain. See Fredrickson, George M., The Inner Civil War: Northern Intellectuals and the Crisis of the Union (New York,1965);Google ScholarRose, Anne C., Victorian America and the Civil War (New York, 1992); andGoogle ScholarWilson, Charles Reagan, Baptized in Blood: The Religion of the Lost Cause, 1865–1920 (Athens, Ga., 1980).Google Scholar

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