2. Mather, Increase, The Mystery of Israel's Salvation (London: John Allen, 1669), 36–37.Google Scholar

3. Gribben, Crawford, The Puritan Millennium: Literature & Theology, 1550–1682 (Portland, Ore.: Four Courts, 2000), 11–25Google Scholar; and Smolinski, Reiner, “Apocalypticism in Colonial North America,” in Bernard, McGinn, Collins, John J., and Stein, Stephen J., eds., The Encyclopedia of Apocalypticism (New York: Continuum, 1998) 3:36–71.Google Scholar

4. Knight, Janice, Orthodoxies in Massachusetts: Rereading American Puritanism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994), especially 131–33, 166–67, 178–84.Google Scholar

5. This supposition is based on the following studies of Reformed eschatology outside England and America: Backus, Irena, Reformation Readings of the Apocalypse: Geneva, Zurich, and Wittenberg (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000)Google Scholar; Hotson, Howard, Paradise Postponed: Johann Heinrich Alsted and the Birth of Calvinist Millenarianism (Boston: Kluwer Academic, 2000)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Williamson, Arthur H., Scottish National Consciousness in the Age of James VI: The Apocalypse, the Union and the Shaping of Scotland's Public Culture (Edinburgh: John Donald, 1979)Google Scholar; van den Berg, J., “Eschatological Expectations Concerning the Conversion of the Jews in the Netherlands during the Seventeenth Century,” in Peter, Toon, ed., Puritans, the Millennium, and the Future of Israel: Puritan Eschatology, 1600–1660 (Cambridge: James Clarke, 1970), 137–53Google Scholar; and van der Wall, Ernestine G. E., “Petrus Serrarius and Menasseh ben Israel: Christian Millenarianism and Jewish Messianism in Seventeenth-Century Amsterdam,” in Yosef, Kaplan, Henry, Mechoulan, and Popkin, Richard H., eds., Menasseh ben Israel and His World (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1989), 164–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

6. Holyoke, Edward, The Doctrine of Life (London: Nath. Ekins, 1658), 290 (mispaginated 298)Google Scholar; and Williams, , The Complete Writings of Roger Williams (New York: Russell and Russell, 1963), 2:269, 3:262, 4:354.Google Scholar

7. Pynchon, William, The Covenant of Nature made with Adam Described (London: for the author, 1662), 417, 423Google Scholar; and Parker, Thomas, The Visions and Prophecies of Daniel Expounded (London: Edmund Paxton, 1646), 149, 155Google Scholar. For Calvin, Beza, and Perkins, see Gribben, , The Puritan Millennium, 38–40, 69Google Scholar; and for Baxter and Cotton Mather, see Smolinski, , “Israel Redivivus: The Eschatological Limits of Puritan Typology in New England,” The New England Quarterly 63 (1990): 366, 385–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

8. This definition of millenarianism is adapted from Hotson, , Paradise Postponed, 18Google Scholar; Gribben, , The Puritan Millennium, 31Google Scholar; and Dwight Bozeman, Theodore, To Live Ancient Lives: The Primitivist Dimension in Puritanism (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988), 198–99.Google Scholar

9. For sixteenth-century Protestant amillennialism in England and elsewhere in Europe, see Bozeman, , To Live Ancient Lives, 199, 202–5, 211–12Google Scholar; Hotson, , Paradise Postponed, 3Google Scholar; Gribben, , The Puritan Millennium, 26–40Google Scholar; and Backus, , Reformation Readings, 6–11, 25–36, 71–75, 108–12. Amillennialism was also the point of view of Augustine and Aquinas.Google Scholar

10. For Piscator and Alsted, see Hotson, , Paradise Postponed, especially 121–53Google Scholar; and for Mede, see Firth, Katharine R., The Apocalyptic Tradition in Reformation Britain, 1530–1645 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979), 213–38Google Scholar, and Christianson, Paul K., Reformers and Babylon: English Apocalyptic Visions from the Reformation to the Eve of the Civil War (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1978), 124–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar John Napier, a late-sixteenth-century Scottish Presbyterian, taught a future terrestrial millennium in his A Plaine Discovery of the whole Revelation of Saint John (Edinburgh: R. Walde-grave, 1593).Google Scholar Because he antedated Piscator, Alsted, Brightman, and Mede, Napier might seem to be more deserving of the credit for starting the shift to millenarianism. Napier, however, was not a millenarian in the sense the term is used in this essay; his future millennium was of short duration, approximately fifty years in length. For more on Napier's distance from millenarianism proper, see Bozeman, , To Live Ancient Lives, 205.Google Scholar

11. For the growth of millenarianism in seventeenth-century Puritanism, see Clouse, R. G., “The Rebirth of Millenarianism,” in Toon, ed., Puritans, the Millennium, and the Future of Israel, 42–65Google Scholar; Bozeman, , To Live Ancient Lives, 216–17, 235–36Google Scholar; and Gribben, , The Puritan Millennium, 42–56Google Scholar. For the continuation of amillennialism in Puritan circles, see Ball, Bryan W., A Great Expectation: Eschatological Thought in English Protestantism to 1660 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1975), 160–64.Google Scholar

12. For Milton, see Firth, , The Apocalyptic Tradition, 232–37Google Scholar, and Gribben, , The Puritan Millennium, 130–31Google Scholar; for Eliot, see Cogley, Richard W., John Eliot's Mission to the Indians before King Philip's War (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999), 76–103Google Scholar; and for Sewall, see Smolinski, , “Israel Redivivus,” 378–80.Google Scholar

13. Brightman's major works were full commentaries on the Books of Revelation and Canticles, a partial commentary on the Book of Daniel, and a treatise on the figure of the Antichrist written against the Jesuit controversialist Robert Bellarmine. These four were published as The Workes of That Famous, Reverend, and Learned Divine Mr. Tho. Brightman (London: John Field, 1644).Google Scholar For the millennium that ended around 1300, see ibid., 813, 816; and for scholarly treatments of Brightman, see Bozeman, , To Live Ancient Lives, 198–214Google Scholar (quotation on 206), and Firth, , The Apocalyptic Tradition, 164–79.Google Scholar

14. For Finch's debt to Brightman, see Prest, Wilfrid R., “The Art of Law and the Law of God: Sir Henry Finch (1558–1625),” in Donald, Pennington and Keith, Thomas, eds., Puritans and Revolutionaries: Essays in Seventeenth-Century History presented to Christopher Hill (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978), 108, 112–13.Google Scholar

15. Mather, Increase, A Dissertation Concerning the Future Conversion Of The Jewish Nation (London: Nath. Hillier, 1709), 11.Google Scholar For time of authorship for the two works, see Hall, Michael G., The Last American Puritan: The Life of Increase Mather (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1988), 77, 273, 279, 325.Google Scholar

16. Students of English Puritanism are more concerned with the problem of defining “Puritanism” than their Americanist counterparts, who do not face the formidable challenge of trying to isolate a partisan minority within an established Anglican Church. For a discussion of the problems of definition, see Cohen, Charles L., “Puritanism,” in Cooke, Jacob Ernest and others, eds., Encyclopedia of the North American Colonies (New York: Charles Scribners' Sons, 1993), 3:577–79.Google Scholar A related issue is whether or not a person had to be of English nationality in order to qualify as a Puritan. David George Mullan has recently shown how definitions of Puritanism fit Scottish Presbyterianism equally well. Scottish Puritanism, 1590–1638 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000).Google Scholar

17. Lake, Peter, Moderate Puritans and the Elizabethan Church (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 252–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Prest, , “The Art of Law and the Law of God,” 103, 112Google Scholar; Capp, Bernard S., The Fifth Monarchy Men: A Study in Seventeenth-Century English Millenarianism (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1972), 240–241Google Scholar; and Batten, J. Minton, John Dury: Advocate of Christian Reunion (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1944), especially 100–112Google Scholar. For Goodwin, , Archer, , Hooke, , Lee, , and Knollys, , see The Dictionary of National Biography on CD-ROM (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).Google Scholar

18. I have read most of the printed sources written by New England Puritans, or by future or former New England Puritans, through about 1680. The eschatological views of many of these figures do not surface in their sources, or else do not surface to the extent needed to determine if the authors were Judeo-centrists, millenarians of a different sort, or amillennialists. Based on my research, I am prepared to say that for persons whose eschatologies can be confidently classified, millenarians outnumbered amillennialists in New England during this period, and Judeo-centrism was the dominant form of millenarianism. My research into the voluminous sources written by English Puritans is presently superficial, and I am reluctant to make any claims about the prevalence of any given form of eschatology there.

19. For example, Wilson, John F., Pulpit in Parliament: Puritanism during the English Civil Wars, 1640–1648 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1969), 223–30Google Scholar; and Liu, Tai, Discord in Zion: The Puritan Divines and the Puritan Revolution, 1640–1660 (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1973), 29–56, especially 38–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

20. Bozeman, , To Live Ancient Lives, especially 193–226.Google Scholar

21. Several citations are normally furnished to document a given point. Many of the references come from Brightman, Cotton, Goodwin, and Increase Mather, who were the most expansive of the figures incorporated into this essay. Citations are occasionally taken from persons outside my roster of Judeo-centric millenarians, either to document something more generally true of Puritanism or else to illustrate a point about Judeo-centrism. In these last instances, the author's extant discussions of eschatology are not extensive enough to establish that he was clearly a Judeo-centrist; however, they are sufficiently intriguing to suggest that he was one. Examples of these probable Judeo-centrists include Edward Taylor, Peter Bulkeley, John Fiske, and Edward Johnson.

22. Fairfield, Leslie P., John Bale: Mythmaker of the English Reformation (West Lafayette, Ind.: Purdue University Press, 1976)Google Scholar; Lamont, William M., Richard Baxter and the Millennium (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1979)Google Scholar; Gilpin, W. Clark, The Millenarian Piety of Roger Williams (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979)Google Scholar; and Capp, , The Fifth Monarchy Men.Google Scholar

23. Firth, , The Apocalyptic TraditionGoogle Scholar; Christianson, , Reformers and BabylonGoogle Scholar; Gribben, , The Puritan MillenniumGoogle Scholar; Smolinski, , “Apocalypticism in Colonial North America”Google Scholar; and Bauckham, Richard, Tudor Apocalypse: Sixteenth-Century Apocalypticism, Millenarianism, and the English Reformation: From John Bale and John Foxe to Thomas Brightman (Oxford: Sutton Courtenay, 1978).Google Scholar

24. Wilson, , Pulpit in ParliamentGoogle Scholar; Liu, , Discord in ZionGoogle Scholar; and Christopher, Hill, The World Turned Upside Down: Radical Ideas during the English Revolution (New York: Viking, 1972).Google Scholar

25. By the same token, there was probably no school of thought that did not hold some points in common with other schools. The destruction of Antichrist, for example, was anticipated by virtually all Puritans, as Hill, Christopher shows in Antichrist in Seven-teenth-Century England (London: Oxford University Press, 1971Google Scholar; revised edition New York: Verso, 1990); and the notion of a future Jewish conversion was not limited to Judeo-centrists, but was espoused by many amillennialists, as the cases of William Perkins and others indicate. Bozeman, , To Live Ancient Lives, 202.Google Scholar

26. Notable examples of thematic studies are Ball's A Great Expectation, Hill's Antichrist, and Davidson's, James WestThe Logic of Millennial Thought: Eighteenth-Century New England (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977).Google Scholar

27. Much of the terrain covered in this essay has been surveyed by Nabil Matar in two books and in two articles: Islam in Britain, 1558–1685 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998)Google Scholar; Turks, Moors, and Englishmen in the Age of Discovery (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999)Google Scholar; “The Idea of the Restoration of the Jews in English Protestant Thought: From the Reformation until 1660,” Durham University journal 78 (1985): 23–36Google Scholar; and “The Idea of the Restoration of the Jews in English Protestant Thought, 1661–1701,” Harvard Theological Review 78 (1985): 115–48. Although I have benefited greatly from Matar's able and provocative work, I disagree with several of his main points, particularly his explanation for why Puritan millenarians of the Judeo-centric type advocated the repatriation of Judah and Israel.Google Scholar

28. Matar, , Islam in Britain, 21–49.Google Scholar

29. Hubbard, William, The Benefit Of A Well-Ordered Conversation (Boston: Samuel Green, 1684), 55Google Scholar; and Noyes, Nicholas, New-Englands Duty and Interest (Boston: John Allen, 1698), 32.Google Scholar

30. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the Arabic terms “Islam” and “Muslim” were not generally used in the English-speaking world until the nineteenth century, although the French loan word “Mussulman” was in circulation well before that time.

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32. For the Ottomans, see Brightman, , The Workes, 922–24Google Scholar; Cotton, John, The Bloudy Tenent Washed and Made White in the Bloud of the Lambe (London: Hannah Allen, 1647), 13Google Scholar; Hooker, Thomas, The Stay of the Faithfull (London: M. Flesher, 1638), 33Google Scholar; Hooke, William, A Discourse Concerning The Witnesses (London: Thomas Cockeril, 1681), 16–17Google Scholar; and Huit, Ephraim, The whole Prophecie of Daniel Explained (London: H. Overton, 1643), 211, 325.Google Scholar For the Arabs and Persians, see Matar, , Islam in Britain, 155Google Scholar; and Marshall, J. and Williams, Glyndwr, The Great Map of Mankind: British Perceptions of New Worlds in the Age of Enlightenment (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982), 17–18.Google Scholar

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36. Cotton, John, The Powring Out of the Seven Vials (London: Ralph Smith, 1645), 90–102Google Scholar; and Goodwin, , An Exposition, 81–82, 130–31, 140–41.Google Scholar

37. Puritan usage of the words “Jew” and “Israelite” was rarely precise. Usually, the context of a given passage provides clues as to whether an author was talking about the descendants of the House of Judah, about the lost tribes of Israel, or about both branches of the posterity of Jacob.

38. Hooke, preface to Mather, The Mystery, f. [b5v]; Lee, Samuel, Israel Redux: Or the Restauration of Israel (London: John Hancock, 1677), 114Google Scholar; and Edward Taylor to Samuel Sewall, September 29, 1696, in Mukhtar Ali Isani, “The Pouring of the Sixth Vial: A Letter in a Taylor-Sewall Debate,” in Massachusetts Historical Society, Proceedings 83 (1971): 128.Google Scholar

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40. Cotton, , The Powring Out, 93Google Scholar; Lee, , Israel Redux, 115Google Scholar; Mather, , The Mystery, 31, 56Google Scholar; and Dury in Winslow, , ed., The Glorious Progress, 93–95Google Scholar, and in Thorowgood, Thomas, Iewes in America, Or Probabilities That the Americans are of that Race (London: Thomas Slater, 1650), ff. d2–e2.Google Scholar

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42. Bozeman, , To Live Ancient Lives, 51–80, 238–42.Google Scholar

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51. Mather, , A Dissertation, 30Google Scholar, and A Mystery, 25, 46.

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58. Mather, , The Mystery, 56–57.Google Scholar

59. Cotton, , The Powring Out, 107Google Scholar; William, Hooke, New-Englands Sence, of Old-England and Irelands Sorrowes (London: John Rothwell, 1645)Google Scholar, in Samuel, Emery, The Ministry of Taunton (Boston: J. P. Jewett, 1853), 125Google Scholar; and Goodwin, , An Exposition, 28.Google Scholar

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66. Ibid., 120, 198; and Cotton, , The Powring Out, 96.Google Scholar

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68. Ibid., 119; and Huit, , The whole Prophecie, 340.Google Scholar

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70. Mather, , A Dissertation, 12, and The Mystery, 90Google Scholar; and Cotton, , The Powring Out, 134, and A Brief Exposition, 188–89.Google Scholar

71. Mather, , The Mystery, 9, and A Dissertation, 9.Google Scholar

72. Goodwin, , An Exposition, 62, 199Google Scholar; Mather, , The Mystery, 18Google Scholar; Lee, , Israel Redux, 130Google Scholar; and Knollys, , An Exposition, 198–99, and The World that Now is, 2:20–22, 43–44.Google Scholar

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78. Bozeman, , To Live Ancient Lives, 238–62 (quotation on 261).Google Scholar

79. Cotton, , A Brief Exposition, 212.Google Scholar See also Lee, , Israel Redux, 70Google Scholar; Thomas, Shepard, The Parable Of The Ten Virgins Opened & Applied (London: John Rothwell, 1660), 2:56–57Google Scholar; and Bulkeley, , The Gospel-Covenant, 6, 16;Google Scholar

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