Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-g8jcs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-24T21:34:32.237Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Towards Meritocratic Apartheid? Points Systems and Migrant Access to China's Urban Public Schools

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 November 2021

Yi Wan Open the ORCID record for Yi Wan [Opens in a new window]  and
Edward Vickers Open the ORCID record for Edward Vickers [Opens in a new window]
Yi Wan
Affiliation:
Graduate School of Human-Environment Studies, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan. Email: [email protected].
Edward Vickers
Affiliation:
Graduate School of Human-Environment Studies, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan. Email: [email protected] (corresponding author).
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This paper analyses rural migrant children's access to public schools in urban China, focusing on the implications of the recent introduction of points systems for apportioning school places. This approach, first piloted by Zhongshan city in Guangdong province from 2009, has steadily been extended nationwide. Here, we analyse the reasons for its spread and for divergence in its implementation in various urban districts. Notwithstanding rhetorical claims that points systems promote “fairness” or “equality” in the treatment of migrants, our analysis suggests that they maintain or even exacerbate the stratification of urban society, lending new legitimation to the hierarchical differentiation of entitlements. This is consistent with the aim of the 2014 “New national urbanization plan” to divert urban growth from megacities towards smaller cities. However, we argue that the use of points systems should also be seen in the context of an evolving bureaucratic-ideological project aimed at more rigorously monitoring and assessing China's entire population, invoking the logic of meritocracy for the purpose of control.

摘要

摘要

本文分析了中国城市中农民工随迁子女进入公立学校的入学门槛，重点关注了近年来引入的积分制对其教育机会均等的影响。该方法于 2009 年在广东省中山市首次试行，现已稳步推广到全国多个省市。我们考察了其被广泛推行的原因以及在各个省市区具体实施中的差异。尽管有言论声称积分制在对待国内移民方面促进了“公平”或“平等”，但分析表明，这项制度维持甚至加剧了城市社会的阶层分化，为权利的等级划分提供了新的正当性支持。这与 2014 年《国家新型城市化规划（2014–2020）》旨在将城市发展重心从大城市转移到中小城市的目标是一致的。我们认为，当将积分制的应用放在不断发展的官僚和意识形态体系的背景下讨论时，它旨在更严格地监控和评价中国的整个人口，反映了其背后采用精英体制以达到控制目的的深层管理逻辑。

Keywords

Chinaurbanizationeducationequitysegregationpoints systemmeritocracymigrant childrenurban public schoolssuzhi中国教育公平隔离城市化积分制精英主义农民工随迁子女城市公立学校素质
Type
Research Article
Information
The China Quarterly , Volume 249 , March 2022 , pp. 210 - 238
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of SOAS University of London

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Anagnost, Ann. 1997. National Past-times: Narrative, Representation, and Power in Modern China. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Anagnost, Ann. 2004. “The corporeal politics of quality (suzhi).” Public Culture 16(2), 189–208.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bell, Daniel. 2015. The China Model: Political Meritocracy and the Limits of Democracy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Bell, Daniel, and Wang, Pei. 2020. Just Hierarchy: Why Social Hierarchies Matter in China and the Rest of the World. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
CCP Central Committee. 1985. “Guanyu shishi yiwu jiaoyu fa ruogan wenti de tongzhi” (Notice of opinions on problems relating to the implementation of the Compulsory Education Law). Beijing: Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, 11 September.Google Scholar
CCP Qidong Municipal Committee, Organization Department. 2015. “Dangyuan jifen kaoping guanli banfa” (Points-based measures for the management of Party membership (trial)), http://www.qddj.gov.cn/Dj/ShowInfo/ItemInfo/1596/dydwjs. Accessed 29 November 2020.Google Scholar
Department of Education of Zhejiang Province. 2016. “Zhejiang sheng renmin zhengfu guanyu jinyibu tuijin huji zhidu gaige de shishi yijian” (Zhejiang provincial government opinion on further promoting the reform of the household registration system), http://www.zjzwfw.gov.cn/art/2016/6/13/art_333_8528.html. Accessed 2 May 2019.Google Scholar
Department of Education of Zhejiang Province. 2019. “2018 nian Zhejiang sheng jiaoyu fazhan tongji gongbao” (Statistical bulletin of Zhejiang education development in 2018), http://jyt.zj.gov.cn/art/2019/4/30/art_1543965_33938077.html. Accessed 2 May 2019.Google Scholar
Dong, Yiming, and Goodburn, Charlotte. 2020. “Residence permits and points systems: new forms of educational and social stratification in urban China.” Journal of Contemporary China 29(125), 647–666.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gan, Nectar. 2020. “China is installing surveillance cameras outside people's front doors and sometimes inside their homes.” CNN Business, 28 April, https://edition.cnn.com/2020/04/27/asia/cctv-cameras-china-hnk-intl/index.html. Accessed 14 December 2020.Google Scholar
Goodburn, Charlotte. 2009. “Learning from migrant education: a case study of the schooling of rural migrant children in Beijing.” International Journal of Educational Development 29, 495–504.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodburn, Charlotte. 2016. “Educating migrant children: the effects of rural–urban migration on access to primary education.” In Guo, Shibao and Guo, Yan (eds.), Spotlight on China. Rotterdam: SensePublishers, 365–380. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6209-881-7_21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guangzhou Education Bureau. 2020. “2019 Guangzhou shi jiaoyu tongji shouce” (Guangzhou education statistics manual 2019), http://jyj.gz.gov.cn/gk/sjtj/content/post_6456182.html. Accessed 18 December 2020.Google Scholar
Guangzhou Municipal Government. 2018. “Guangzhou shi laisui renyuan jifenzhi fuwu guanli guiding (shixing)” (Provisions relating to the administration of the points system for migrants in Guangzhou (trial)), http://www.gz.gov.cn/gzswjk/2.1.2/201804/48de6eda717b48f8a35573b96b9d88ce.shtml. Accessed 10 March 2020.Google Scholar
Guangzhou Statistics Bureau. 2019. Guangzhou Statistical Yearbook 2019. Beijing: China Statistics Press.Google Scholar
Guo, Zhonghua, and Liang, Tuo. 2017. “Differentiating citizenship in urban China: a case study of Dongguan city.” Citizenship Studies 21(7), 773–791.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hansen, Mette Halskov. 2015. Educating the Chinese Individual: Life in a Rural High School. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar
Hu, Bo. 2018. Educating Migrant Children in Urban Public Schools in China: Unravelling the Implementation Paradox. Singapore: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jiang, Zemin. 1999. “Jiaoyu bixu yi tigao guomin suzhi wei genben zongzhi” (Education must take raising citizens’ quality as its fundamental purpose). People's Daily, 15 June.Google Scholar
Jiaxing Municipal Bureau of Statistics. 2018. Jiaxing tongji nianjian 2018 (Jiaxing Statistical Yearbook 2018). Beijing: China Statistics Press.Google Scholar
Jiaxing Municipal Government. 2017. “Jiaoxing shi chengshi zongti guihua: 2002–2020” (Jiaxing's city master plan: 2003–2020), http://zrzyhghj.jiaxing.gov.cn/art/2020/7/29/art_1229240437_1966737.html. Accessed 13 January 2021.Google Scholar
Kunming Medical University CCP Committee. 2016. “Kunming yike daxue dangyuan jifenzhi guanli banfa” (Measures for managing the points system for Party members in Kunming Medical University (trial)), http://www.kmmc.cn/upload/20171228/2017122818053978.pdf. Accessed 16 December 2020.Google Scholar
Kunshan Municipal Government. 2018. “Kunshan shi 2018 nian xinshimin zinü gongban xuexiao jifen ruxue shishi xize wenda” (Rules for the implementation of the points system governing public schooling for the children of new citizens in Kunshan 2018: questions and answers), http://www.ks.gov.cn/zt/jfrx2018/ssxzwd.html. Accessed 7 July 2019.Google Scholar
Lai, Fang, Liu, Chengfeng, Luo, Renfu, Zhang, Linxiu, Ma, Xiaochen, Bai, Yujie, Sharbono, Brian and Rozelle, Scott. 2014. “The education of China's migrant children: the missing link in China's education system.” International Journal of Educational Development 37, 68–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, Bingqin, Chen, Chunlai and Hu, Biliang. 2016. “Governing urbanization and the New Urbanization Plan in China.” Environment and Urbanization 28(2), 515–534.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, Miao, and Xiong, Yihan. 2019. “Producing the morally captive guest: discourse and power in gratitude education of migrant children in Beijing.” The China Quarterly 240, 1018–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liu, Yuzhao, and Wang, Yuanteng. 2017. “Analysis of the education status of migrant children in Shanghai (2013–2016).” In Yang Dongping, Qin Hongyu and Wei Jiayu (eds.), Annual Report on Education for China's Migrant Children (2016). Beijing: Social Science Academic Press (China), 121–140.Google Scholar
Markovits, Daniel. 2019. The Meritocracy Trap. London: Penguin Press.Google Scholar
MOE (Ministry of Education). 2001. “Guowuyuan guanyu jichu jiaoyu gaige yu fazhan de jueding” (State Council's decisions to reform and develop basic education), http://old.moe.gov.cn/publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/moe/moe_406/200412/4730.html. Accessed 10 March 2020.Google Scholar
Murphy, Rachel. 2004. “Turning peasants into modern Chinese citizens: ‘population quality’ discourse, demographic transition and primary education.” The China Quarterly 177, 1–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
New Citizen Program. 2017. “Geographical distribution of migrant children during compulsory education in China (2015).” In Dongping, Yang, Hongyu, Qin and Jiayu, Wei (eds.), Annual Report on Education for China's Migrant Children (2016). Beijing: Social Science Academic Press (China), 275–78.Google Scholar
Ohlberg, Mareike, Ahmed, Shazeda and Lang, Bertram. 2017. “Central planning, local experiments: the complex implementation of China's social credit system.” Merics China Monitor, Mercator China Institute.Google Scholar
Papademetriou, Demetrios G., Somerville, Will and Tanaka, Hiroyuki. 2008. Hybrid Immigrant-selection Systems: The Next Generation of Economic Migration Schemes. Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute.Google Scholar
Papademetriou, Demetrios G., and Sumption, Madeleine. 2011. Rethinking Points Systems and Employer-selected Immigration. Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute.Google Scholar
People's Government of Guangdong Province. 2010. “Guanyu kaizhan nongmingong jifenzhi ru hu chengzhen gongzuo de zhidao yijian” (Opinions on further improving the points system governing hukou transfer for migrant workers and their integration into urban life), http://zwgk.gd.gov.cn/006939748/201007/t20100705_12024.html. Accessed 10 April 2019.Google Scholar
Pepper, Suzanne. 1996. Radicalism and Education Reform in 20th-century China: The Search for an Ideal Development Model. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rongcheng Municipal Government. 2019. “Guanyu yinfa Rongcheng shi shehui chengyuan xinyong jifen he xinyong pingjia guanli banfa de tongzhi” (Notice on issuing credit scores and credit evaluations of members of Rongcheng society), 17 January, Document No. RCDR-2019001000.Google Scholar
SEC and MOPS (State Education Commission and Ministry of Public Security). 1998. “Liudong ertong shaonian jiuxue zanxing banfa” (Interim measures for migrant children's schooling), http://old.moe.gov.cn//publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/moe/moe_621/200409/3192.html. Accessed 10 March 2020.Google Scholar
Shanghai Municipal Government. 2016. “Guli liuxue renyuan lai Shanghai gongzuo he chuangye de ruogan guiding” (Some regulations to encourage overseas students to come to Shanghai to work and start businesses), http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/2016-02/01/content_5058923.htm. Accessed 31 January 2020.Google Scholar
Shanghai Municipal Government. 2017. “Shanghai shi juzhuzheng guanli banfa” (Administrative measures for residence permits for Shanghai municipality), http://www.sh.gov.cn/nw2/nw2314/nw2319/nw12344/u26aw54292.html. Accessed 31 January 2020.Google Scholar
Shenzhen Education Bureau. 2018. “Weishenme yao shishi jifen ruxue” (Why implement a points-based system for school admission), http://www.sz.gov.cn/jyj/ywzsk/fwssjz3/2016zs_66043/201812/t20181206_14787701.htm. Accessed 7 July 2019.Google Scholar
State Council. 2001. “Guanyu zhiding zhongxiaoxue jiaozhigong bianzhi biaozhun de yijian” (Opinions on the establishment of standards for employing teachers and staff in primary and secondary schools), http://www.gov.cn/gongbao/content/2001/content_61159.htm. Accessed 27 December 2020.Google Scholar
State Council. 2003. “Guanyu jinyibu zuohao jincheng wugong jiuye nongmin zinü yiwu jiaoyu gongzuo de yijian” (Advice on improving compulsory education for migrant children), http://www.gov.cn/ztzl/ywjy/content_470391.htm. Accessed 10 March 2020.Google Scholar
State Council. 2014a. “Guowuyuan guanyu jinyibu tuijin huji zhidu gaige de yijian” (Opinions of the State Council on further promotion of reform of the household registration system), No. 25, 24 July, http://www.gov.cn/gongbao/content/2014/content_2729568.htm. Accessed 18 July 2019.Google Scholar
State Council. 2014b. “Zhongguo xinxing chengzhenghua guihua” (The New National Urbanization Plan for 2014–2020), http://www.gov.cn/gongbao/content/2014/content_2644805.htm Accessed 1 October 2019.Google Scholar
State Council. 2014c. “Guanyu yinfa shehui xinyong tixi jianshe guihua gangyao de tongzhi (2014–2020)” (Notice on printing and distributing the outline for the construction of the social credit system, 2014–2020), http://www.gov.cn/gongbao/content/2014/content_2711418.htm. Accessed 29 December 2019.Google Scholar
State Council. 2016. “Tuidong yiyi feihuji renkou zai chengshi luohu fang'an” (Promoting the settlement of 100 million non-hukou people in cities), http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2016-10/11/content_5117442.htm. Accessed 29 June 2020.Google Scholar
Tianli Education. 2019. Guangdong sheng zhongkao shiti jingxuan: daode yu fazhi (Selected High School Entrance Examination Questions in Guangdong Province: Morality and Rule of Law). Lhasa: Tibetan People's Publishing House.Google Scholar
Vickers, Edward, and Zeng, Xiaodong. 2017. The Politics of Education in Post-Mao China: An Overview. Education and Society in Post-Mao China. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Wang, Weiping. 2017. “The evolution of the conditions for the admission of compulsory education for migrant children.” Journal of Shanghai Educational Research 4, 74–79.Google Scholar
Wang, Xiang. 2020. “Permits, points, and permanent household registration: recalibrating hukou policy under ‘top-level design’.” Journal of Current Chinese Affairs. DOI:10.1177/1868102619894739.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wang, Yijie, and Lu, Nan. 2019. “A study on the policy of points-based admission for migrant children – an analysis based on 11 cities in the Pearl River Delta and Yangtze River Delta regions.” Jiangsu Social Science 302, 69–79.Google Scholar
Wee, Sui-Lee. 2020. “China is collecting DNA from tens of millions of men and boys, using US equipment.” New York Times, 30 July.Google Scholar
Woronov, Terry. 2015. Class Work: Vocational Schools and China's Urban Youth. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Wright, Teresa. 2010. Accepting Authoritarianism: State–Society Relations in China's Reform Era. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Wu, Jieh-Min. 2010. “Rural migrant workers and China's differential citizenship: a comparative-institutional analysis.” In Whyte, Martin King (ed.), One Country, Two Societies: Rural–Urban Inequality in Contemporary China. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 55–81.Google Scholar
Yang, Dongping. 2017. “The development and policy evolution of China's migrant children's education.” In Dongping, Yang, Hongyu, Qin and Jiayu, Wei (eds.), Annual Report on Education for China's Migrant Children (2016). Beijing: Social Science Academic Press (China), 275–78.Google Scholar
Zhang, Li. 2012. “Economic migration and urban citizenship in China: the role of points systems.” Population and Development Review 38(3), 503–533.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhang, Li. 2015. “Interpreting definitional complexities of China's non-hukou migrants.” In Wong, Tai-Chee, Han, Sun Sheng and Zhang, Hongmei (eds.), Population Mobility, Urban Planning and Management in China. Switzerland: Springer, 35–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhang, Li, and Li, Meng. 2018. “Acquired but unvested welfare rights: migration and entitlement barriers in reform-era China.” The China Quarterly 235, 669–692.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhang, Yu. 2018. “China turns televisions and mobile phones in villages into surveillance terminals.” Global Times, 27 June, www.globaltimes.cn. Accessed 26 December 2020.Google Scholar
Zhongshan Municipal Government. 2009a. “Zhongshan shi liudong renyuan jifenzhi guanli zanxing guiding” (Interim provisions on the management of the points systems for migrant workers), http://www.zs.gov.cn/zwgk/fggw/sfbwj/content/post_237856.html. Accessed 13 October 2021.Google Scholar
Zhongshan Municipal Government. 2009b. “Zhongshan shi liudong renyuan jifenzhi guanli jifen biaozhun” (Management of points standards for migrants in Zhongshan city), http://www.zs.gov.cn/zwgk/fggw/bsgfxwj/content/post_757916.html. Accessed 13 October 2021.Google Scholar
Zhongshan Municipal Government. 2018. “Zhongshan shi tuidong feihuji renkou zai chengshi luohu shishi fang'an 2018” (Zhongshan proposal for promoting the settlement of the non-hukou-holding population in the city, 2018), http://www.zs.gov.cn/mzz/zcgw/qtwj/content/post_1305750.html. Accessed 2 February 2019.Google Scholar
Zhongshan Municipal Government. 2019. “Zhongshan shi liudong renyuan jifen ruxue guanli jifen biaozhun” (Points counting standard for school admission of migrant children in Zhongshan city), http://www.zs.gov.cn/swj/zwgk/view/index.action?did=2359&id=520325. Accessed 27 June 2019.Google Scholar