¹ Jen-min Shou-t'se, 1958, p. 603Google Scholar; Kiselov, I. N., “Scientific Ties Between Two Academies,” Vestnik Akademii Nauk, S.S.S.R. No. 9, 09, 1959Google Scholar, in Joint Publications Research Service (hereafter JPRS): 2139-N (01 13, 1960), p. 5Google Scholar; Mo-jo, Kuo, “Development of Scientific Research in China,” New China News Agency (hereafter NCNA), June 18, 1956, in Current Background (hereafter CB) (Hong Kong: U.S. Consulate-General), No. 400, p. 2.Google Scholar

² Novoye Vreruya, Moscow, No. 50, 12 12, 1957, p. 12.Google Scholar

³ Liu Shao-ch'i to the Eighth Party Congress, NCNA, 09 16, 1956.Google Scholar

⁴ Chou En-lai to the Eighth Party Congress, NCNA, 09 18, 1956.Google Scholar

⁵ Jen-min Jih-pao (People's Daily), Peking, 11 2, 1957.Google Scholar

⁶ Some of these complaints were voiced in a memorandum published by a group of scientists in Kuang-ming Jih-pao, 06 7, 1957Google Scholar; also see Opposition Aroused in China by Marxist Planning of Scientific Research (Oxford: Society for Freedom in Science), Occasional Pamphlet No. 19, 12 1959Google Scholar; Scientia Sinica (Chung-kuo K'o-hsueh), Vol. VIII, No. 10, 1959, p. 1159Google Scholar. Part of the problem was the over-zealous interpretation and application by Chinese Communist officials of Article 8 of the “Provisional Regulations Governing the Control of Book and Periodical Publishing, Printing, and Distribution Trades” (promulgated August 16, 1952) which stipulated that publishers “shall not publish words or charts that disclose state secrets.” All research, of course, is state business.

⁷ These are crude projections from figures on college graduates presented in Chung-kuo Chiao-yü Nien-chien (Chinese Yearbook of Education) (Shanghai: 1948)Google Scholar. Anderson Shin, Director of Union Research Institute, Kong, Hong, in “The Comparative Status of Science and Education between Communist China and USSR” (paper read at the Third International Sovietological Conference, 09 18–24, 1960, Lake Kawaguchi, Japan), p. 11Google Scholar, estimates that some 20,000 scientists and technicians were scattered over China in 1949.

⁸ Orleans, Leo A., Professional Manpower and Education in Communist China (Washington: National Science Foundation, 1961), p. 77.Google Scholar

⁹ Mo-jo, Kuo, “General Report on 1950 Work and Main Points of 1951 Programme of the Chinese Academy of Sciences,” Hsin Hua Yueh-pao, 05 1951Google Scholar, in CB 153, pp. 4–11Google Scholar; K'o-hsueh Tung-pao, No. 19, 1959, p. 613.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Shih, Anderson, loc. cit., p. 2Google Scholar. Shih reports that over 90 per cent, of China's professors and scientists had been approached and urged to remain at their posts before the Communists established their government.

¹¹ Needham, Joseph and Needham, Dorothy, Science Outpost: Papers of The Sino-British Science Co-operation Office, 1942–46 (London: 1948)Google Scholar. Chart opposite p. 32 and passim; The China Yearbook, 1931, Shanghai, pp. 454Google Scholaret seq.; China Handbook, 1937–45, New York, pp. 350Google Scholaret seq.; China Handbook, 1950, New York, pp. 657et seq.Google Scholar

¹² Jung-chen, Nieh, “China's Programme in Science and Technology,” Jen-min Jih-pao, 09 27, 1959Google Scholar, in CB 608, pp. 1–11.Google Scholar

¹³ Kai-shek, Chiang, “The Way and Spirit of Science,”Google Scholar in Needham, , op. cit., p. 79Google Scholar. Also see Tse-tsung, Chow, The May Fourth Movement (Cambridge: Harvard University, 1960), pp. 344–345.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Kiselov, I. N., loc. cit., p. 2.Google Scholar

¹⁵ China Digest, VII, No. 4, 11 16, 1949, p. 23.Google Scholar

¹⁶ San-ch'iang, Ch'ien, “Modern Science in China,” Kuang-ming Jih-pao, 07 21, 1953Google Scholar, in CB 257, p. 5.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Chu, Coching, “Science in New China,” Culture and Education in New China (Peking: Foreign Languages Press, n.d.), p. 69.Google Scholar

¹⁸ Jen-nan Shou-ts'e 1953 (Tientsin: Ta Kung Pao), in CB 257, p. 8.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Ibid. p. 29. The purposes of this organisation are thus described: “The activities of the Association are directed toward the workers, peasants and soldiers, and its aims are: (1) to enable the labouring people to master a scientific knowledge of production so as to give full play to their powers in national economic construction; (2) to explain all natural phenomena from the materialistic viewpoint so as to get rid of superstitious notions; (3) to extol OUT accomplishments in scientific technique and the inventions resulting from the creative efforts of the labouring people so as to promote the people's patriotic spirit; and (4) to popularise medical and health knowledge so as to safeguard the people's state of health.”

²⁰ Meng-ho, Tao, “China's New Academia Sinica,” China Monthly Review, 11 1957Google Scholar, in CB 153, p. 21.Google Scholar

²¹ Mo-jo, Kuo, “General Report on 1950 Work and 1951 Programme of the Chinese Academy of Sciences,” Hsin Hua Yueh-pao, 05 1951Google Scholar, in CB 153, pp. 4–11.Google Scholar

²² Russian advisers, about a dozen in number, introduced an additional organisational level in the Academy by grouping the research institutes within four, kter five, departments. The Academy adopted Soviet administrative practices, probably includ ing accounting and reporting procedures and systems of internal communications. It followed Russian advice in the consolidation and redistribution of research projects, and, in principle, accepted the Russian reward and status system of Academicians.

²³ Jung-chen, Nieh, loc. cit., p. 4.Google Scholar

²⁴ Hsien-nien, Li to the National People's Congress (hereafter MPC), NCNA, 07 8, 1955.Google Scholar

²⁵ Kuo Mo-jo to the MPC, NCNA, 06 18, 1956Google Scholar, in CB 400, pp. 1–5.Google Scholar

²⁶ China Reconstructs, 03 1956, p. 19Google Scholar; Kuang-ming Jih-pao, 01 31, 1958, p. 1Google Scholar; Far Eastern Economic Review, Hong Kong, 06 6, 1956Google Scholar; Wilson, J. Tuzo, One Chinese Moon, (Toronto, New York, London: 1959), p. 78passim.Google Scholar

²⁷ NCNA, 01 26, 1958.Google Scholar

²⁸ Fu-ch, Li'un to the NPC, 05 23, 1957.Google Scholar

²⁹ Kiselov, I. N., loc. cit., pp. 6, 7.Google Scholar

³⁰ Kuo Mo-jo to the MPC, Jen-min Jih-pao, 07 6, 1957Google Scholar, in CB 467, p. 9.Google Scholar

³¹ Scientia Sinica, VIII, No. 10, 1959, p. 1158.Google Scholar

³² Kuo Mo-jo to NPC, Jen-min Jih-pao, 07 6, 1957Google Scholar, in CB 467, p. 9Google Scholar; Wilson, op. cit., passim.

³³ Hu, Chang-tu et al. , China: Its People, Its Society, Its Culture (New Haven: 1960), p. 450Google Scholar; Scientia Sinica, Vol. VIII, No. 11, in Science News Letter, Washington, D.C., 12 10, 1960, p. 387.Google Scholar

³⁴ K'o-hsueh, XXXIII, No. 2, 1957.Google Scholar

³⁵ K'o-hsueh T'ung-pao, No. 6, 1958, p. 165.Google Scholar

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³⁷ For a review of the Chinese capabilities in the nuclear field, see Barnett, A. Doak, “The Inclusion of Communist China in an Arms-Control Programme,” Daedalus (Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Vol. 88, No. 4), Fall 1960, pp. 831–845.Google Scholar

³⁸ NCNA, 09 15, 1959, and September 28, 1959Google Scholar; Druzhba, Peking, 11 12, 1958, p. 28 and February 4 1959, p. 9.Google Scholar

³⁹ State Statistical Bureau, Ten Great Years: Statistics of the Economic and Cultural Achievements of the People's Republic of China (Peking: Foreign Languages Press, 1960), p. 203.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Figures on the Soviet Academy as reported in the New York Times, 07 23, 1959.Google Scholar

⁴¹ China Handbook, 1953–54, (Taipei: 1953), p. 409.Google Scholar

⁴² Wen-ching, Tseng, The Socialist Industrialisation of China, 1959Google Scholar, in JPRS: 3800 (08 31, 1960), p. 113.Google Scholar

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⁴⁵ NCNA, 07 18, 1957Google Scholar; NCNA, 02 14, 1959, June 27, 1959, and July 16, 1960Google Scholar; Druzhba, 11 5, 1957, p. 21.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ Science is not listed among the subjects of specialisation of the 1,300 students who returned to China in 1960.

⁴⁷ Wen-ching, Tseng, op. cit., p. 118.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ Kiselov, I. N.. loc. cit., p. 6.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ NCNA, 07 21, 1955Google Scholar, in CB 351, pp. 20–24.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Jung-chen, Nieh, “The Road of Development of Our Country's Scientific and Technical Work,” Hung Ch'i (Red Flag), No. 9, 10 1, 1958Google Scholar, in Union Research Service (URS), Vol. 13 No. 19, pp. 278–279.Google Scholar

⁵¹ Wen-ching, Tseng, op. cit., p. 113.Google Scholar

⁵² NCNA, 09 20, 1958Google Scholar; Druzhba, 10 15, 1958, p. 29Google Scholar; NCNA, Peking, 06 18, 1959.Google Scholar

⁵³ Narodnyy Kitay, Peking, No. 16 (08 16, 1957), p. 20.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ Kuang-ming Jih-pao, 08 9, 1957Google Scholar, in SCMP 1626, p. 2Google Scholar; Ibid. September 13, 1957.

⁵⁵ Kuo Mojo to the MPC, 07 21, 1955Google Scholar, in CB 351, pp. 20–24.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ K'o-hsueh T'ung-pao, No. 7, 1958, p. 198.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ According to K'o-hsueh T'ung-pao, No. 18, 1959, p. 1, 342Google Scholar mathematicians published 983 papers between 1950 and 1958.

⁵⁸ This figure, subject to radical revision, is arrived at as follows: 862 names on the 1950 roster of natural scientists, less 174 abroad, equals 688; 200 completed training or were up-graded through further training in the Soviet Union by 1960; 150 completed training or were further trained to post-graduate levels in China; probably less than 100 returned to China after 1949 from the United States, Europe and Japan with post-graduate degrees at the doctoral level in the natural sciences: gross total, 1,338. From this should be subtracted losses through death, those inactivated for political unreliability, retirement and ill-health, and those involved in other activities, such as politics, administration, etc.

⁵⁹ See “Chemistry Department of Northwest University and Sian Chemistry Research Institute Join Efforts in Scientific Research,” Kuang-ming Jih-pao, 12 23, 1959Google Scholar, in Union Research Service (hereafter URS), Vol. 19, No. 12, pp. 174–176.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ Vestnik Akademii Nauk SSSR, Moscow, 1959, No. 9, p. 50.Google Scholar

⁶¹ Fisika Metallov i Metallovedeniye, Vol. VIII, 1959, No 6, pp. 820–828Google Scholar, in JPRS: 2425 (03 31, 1960), pp. 1–13.Google Scholar

⁶² Zhurnal Neoorganicheskoy Khimi, Vol. III, 1958, No. 2, pp. 542–545Google Scholar, in JPRS: 2568 (04 27, 1960), pp. 1–9.Google Scholar

⁶³ Jen-min Jih-pao, 06 3, 1955.Google Scholar

⁶⁴ Ibid., February 27, 1955.

⁶⁵ Peking Radio, 09 26, 1956.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ Kuo Mo-jo to the MPC, NCNA, 06 18, 1956Google Scholar, in CB 400, p. 3.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ Yü Kuang-yuan to the Party Congress, Peking Radio, 09 26, 1956.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ This subject has been dealt with in great and reiterative volume. Examples are: Chou En-lai to the NPC, 06 26, 1957Google Scholar; Kuo Mo-jo to the NPC, 07 5, 1957.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ Communist China, 1957, Union Research Institute, Hong Kong, 1958, p. 119.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ NCNA, Peking, 06 2, 1955Google Scholar, SCMP 1066, pp. 6–8Google Scholar; NCNA, Peking, 07 21, 1955Google Scholar, in CB 351, pp. 20–24.Google Scholar

⁷¹ For general accounts of this controversy, see Chen, Theodore H. E., Thought Reform of the Chinese Intellectuals (Hong Kong Un., 1960)Google Scholar; MacFarquhar, Roderick, The Hundred Flowers Campaign and the Chinese Intellectuals, (New York: Praeger, 1960).Google Scholar

⁷² Hung Ch'i, No. 9, 10 1, 1958.Google Scholar

⁷³ Nieh Jung-chen to the First National Congress of the Scientific and Technical Association of the People's Republic of China, Hung Ch'i, No. 9, 10 1, 1958Google Scholar, in URS, Vol 13, pp. 278–297.Google Scholar

⁷⁴ The members of the Scientific and Technological Commission include: Nieh Jung-chen (chairman); five vice-chairmen: Han Kuang, Liu Hsi-yao, Chang Yu-hsuan, Fan Ch'ang-chiang, and Wu Heng; and, in addition, An Tung, Chao Shou-kung, Chü Kang-chien, Sui Yun-sheng, and Wang Shun-t'ung. Scientific personalities such as Kuo Mo-jo and Li Ssu-kuang, who were on the Scientific Planning Committee, are not included on the Commission.

⁷⁵ For the Resolution setting up the “Science Association,” see Hua Hsueh T'ung-pao, 1958, No. 12, pp. 673, 674.Google Scholar

⁷⁶ Kuang-ming Jih-pao, 12 19, 1959Google Scholar, in URS, Vol. 19, p. 173.Google Scholar

⁷⁷ NCNA, 03 15, 1957.Google Scholar

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⁷⁹ Research was developed under the Academy of Medical Sciences at the Research Institute of Hematology and Blood Transfusion, with six sections, and at the same time hospital and health organisations throughout the country launched research programmes. Scientific work in agriculture had been centred in three national and fifteen provincial research institutes, but suddenly in 1958 agricultural research, according to reports, was metamorphosed and throughout China research teams and institutes were at work: 157 at the provincial level, 190 in chuan or ch'ü, 771 in hsien or county and 7,690 in communes. Jen-min Jih-pao, 04 12, 1960Google Scholar; Kuang-ming Jih-pao, 12 25, 1960.Google Scholar

⁸⁰ Nieh Jung-chen reported by Jen-min Jih-pao, 09 27, 1959Google Scholar, in CB 608, p. 10.Google Scholar

⁸¹ Jen-min Jih-pao, 10 11, 1959Google Scholar, in CB 608, p. 13.Google Scholar

⁸² See, for example, Report of Yuan Jen-yuan to the Chinghai Provincial People's Congress, Chinghai Jih-pao, Sining 07 4, 1958, in JPRS: 5847 (November 7, 1960), p. 46Google Scholar; Wang Huan-ju to the Kirin People's Congress, Kirin Jih-pao, Ch'ang-ch'un, 05 27, 1960, in JPRS: 4135 (October 24, 1960), p. 14.Google Scholar

⁸³ The members are listed in SCMP 1062, pp. 37et seq.Google Scholar

⁸⁴ The list of names appears in CB 460, p. 17.Google Scholar

⁸⁵ NCNA, 05 12, 1960Google Scholar, in SCMP 2262, pp. 29–31.Google Scholar

⁸⁶ Kuo Mo-jo's speech to the Department Committees of the Academy, Jen-min Jih-pao, 06 12, 1955Google Scholar, in CB 359, p. 11Google Scholar; Jen-min Jih-pao, 06 3, 1955Google Scholar, in SCMP 1064, pp. 14, 15.Google Scholar

⁸⁷ NCNA, 04 9, 1958.Google Scholar

⁸⁸ Jen-min Jih-pao, 05 31, 1957.Google Scholar

⁸⁹ While no list of the members of the Academy Council has been found, its Standing Committee probably includes the President, Vice President and Secretaries of the Academy.

⁹⁰ This was discussed by Yü Kuang-yuan at the Eighth Party Congress, Peking Radio, 10 9, 1956.Google Scholar

⁹¹ See Appendix for “Regulations on the Organisation of the Departments of the Chinese Academy of Sciences.”

⁹² Jung-chen, Nieh, Jen-min Jih-pao, 09 27, 1959Google Scholar, in CB 608, p. 9Google Scholar; Hung Ch'i, No. 9, 10 1, 1958Google Scholar, in URS, Vol. 13, No. 19, pp. 283, 286Google Scholar. Many Chinese Communist statements and writings seem to have an underlying feeling or fear that time is running out and speed is important.

⁹³ Hung Ch'i, No. 9, 10 1, 1958Google Scholar, in URS, Vol. 13, No. 19, p. 295.Google Scholar

⁹⁴ Ibid. pp. 284, 285.

⁹⁵ Ibid. p. 287.

⁹⁶ Jen-min Jih-pao, 05 24, 1957, in CB 460.Google Scholar

⁹⁷ The reported science budget of the Soviet Union for 1961 is $4.44 billion (4 billion new roubles at the official rate of exchange of $1.11 to the rouble), or 5 per cent, of the total budget—reported in the New York Times, 12 21, 1960.Google Scholar

⁹⁸ Kuo Mo-jo to the NPC, 06 18, 1956Google Scholar, Peking, , 06 18, 1956Google Scholar, in CB 400, pp. 1–5.Google Scholar

⁹⁹ Zirkle, Conway and Meyerhoff, Howard A., Soviet Science (Washington: American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1952), p. 73.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁰ Kuo Mo-jo to the MPC, NCNA, 07 21, 1955Google Scholar, in CB 351, pp. 21, 22.Google Scholar

¹⁰¹ Jen Great Years, op. cit., p. 189.Google Scholar

¹⁰² Reported in the New York Times, 12 26, 1960.Google Scholar

¹⁰³ Kuo Mo-jo to the NPC, Jen-min Jih-pao, in CB 467, p. 12.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁴ Ibid.

¹⁰⁵ Ibid., p. 13; Jen-min Jih-pao, 05 27, 1957Google Scholar, in CB 460, p. 10.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁶ “Ch'ang Chin-fu Maps Scientific Tasks,” NCNA, 06 6, 1960Google Scholar, in CB 622, p. 33.Google Scholar