* Earlier versions of this article were presented at the Harvard Workshop on South-west China (August 1975), and the Annual Conference of the British Association for Chinese Studies (September 1976). Research support was provided by the Contemporary China Institute, through a Research Fellowship; and the Social Sciences Research Council (USA), through the Harvard Workshop.

1. For recent examples, see Chang, P., “Decentralization of power”, p. 67Google Scholar and Falkenheim, V., “Continuing central predominance”, p. 75Google Scholar, both in Problems of Communism, Vol. 21, No. 4 (07–08 1972)Google Scholar.

2. This can be seen, in terms of personnel, through a comparison of two groups of leading cadres – the ministers and vice-ministers under the State Council, and the secretaries of the provincial Party committees. Of 366 ministers/vice-ministers active in April 1966, 152 (41–5%) were openly criticized during the Cultural Revolution and 186 (50–8%) were no longer active by April 1968. On the other hand, of 247 secretaries, 176 were openly criticized (71–3%) and 213 (86–2%) removed from office by April 1968.

3. See, for example, Donnithorne, A., “Central economic control in China”, in Adams, R. (ed.) Contemporary China (London: Peter Owen, 1966), p. 151Google Scholar; and Chang, P., “Research notes on the changing loci of decision in the CCP”, in The China Quarterly (CQ), No. 44, p. 169CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

4. See, for example, Donnithome, A., “China's cellular economy: trends since the Cultural Revolution”, CQ, No. 52, p. 617Google Scholar.

5. The regional bureaus of the CCP Central Committee were officially established in 1961. However, during the whole period of their existence (until 1967) little was said about their functions. In addition to the South-west, there were regional bureaus of Central South, East, North, North-east, and North west China.

6. For an alternative view, see Schurmann, H. F., Ideology and Organization in Communist China (2nd Edition) (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press, 1968), p. 195Google Scholar.

7. Attributed to Li Jingquan by his critics during the Cultural Revolution. See, for example, Guizhou Radio Broadcast of 15 September 1968 by You Bin, “Refute Li Jingquan's absurd theory that ‘Without Sichuan, there would be no China’”.

8. The South-west region has been defined as including the provinces of Guizhou, Yunnan, Sichuan, and Xikang (incorporated into Sichuan and Xikang in 1955) from 1949–1957; and these provinces plus Xikang since 1957.

9. See for example “The crimes of ‘the biggest office-holder’ in the Southwest”, by the Proletarian Revolutionaries of the New Guizhou Daily, broadcast by Guizhou Radio, 4 June 1967.

10. See Solinger, D., Regional Government and Political Integration in Southwest China, 1949–1954 (Berkeley: University of California Press 1977)Google Scholar; and Kapp, R. A., Szechuan and the Chinese Republic, 1911–1938 (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1973)Google Scholar.

11. “Lin fuzhuxi jiejian Yun, Gui, Chuan san sheng yibufen fuze tongzhi zuo de zhuyao zhishi”, 2 May 1969, in the East Asian Library, Hoover Institution (Stanford University), Zhonggong wenjian huibian, No. 3.

12. “Important speeches delivered on March 15 by leaders of the Centre”, from Jinggangshan and Hongqi. Joint Issue (Beijing) of 21 March 1968, in Survey of the China Mainland Press (SCMP) Supplement No. 225, p. 1.

13. “Important speeches by central leaders on March 15“ in SCMP, No. 4181 (20 05 1968), p. 1Google Scholar. No date and place of publication are available for the tabloid from which this was translated. Although undoubtedly a report of the same meeting referred to in supra, note 12, there are slight differences.

14. See for example, MacFarquhar, R., The Origins of the Cultural Revolution, Vol. I, Contradictions Among the People 1956–1957 (London and Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1974)Google Scholar.

15. The major sources used in this study are: (i) for 1958–1963Google Scholar, local newspapers, in particular Sichuan ribao (The Szechuan Daily), (ii) for 1963–1968Google Scholar, Provincial Radio broadcasts, monitored, translated and published in either the BBC's Summary of World Broadcasts (SWB) or its equivalent in the United States, the Foreign Broadcasting Information Service (FBIS).

16. See articles by Gluckman, , Swatz, and Tinker, in Swatz, M. J. (ed.), Local LevelPolitics (London: University of London Press, 1968)Google Scholar. Especially Gluckman, , “Inter-hierarchial roles: professional and party ethics in tribal areas in South and Central Africa”, p. 69Google Scholar.

17. This must be so by any standard. No leading cadre in Sichuan (after 1958) or of the South-west Regional Bureau (after 1960) was purged during this period, and the number of new appointments was relatively small: three secretaries of the Regional Bureau, three secretaries of the Sichuan Party Committee and nine new vice-governors of the province. Teiwes, F. C. in Provincial Party Personnel in Mainland China (New York: East Asian Institute, Columbia University, 1967)Google Scholar ranks Sichuan's Party Secretariat as the third most stable of all provincial units between 1956 and 1966, p. 38.

18. See, e.g., Hongzhuan, Fei, “Vehement denunciation of the anti-Party, anti-socialist, and anti-Mao Zedong Thought crimes of the counter-revolutionary revisionist, Li Jingquan”, Part II, broadcast by Radio, Sichuan, 7 09 1967Google Scholar.

19. See, e.g., Zhen, Long and Lian, Wu, “Thoroughly settle accounts with Li Jingquan for the counter-revolutionary crimes he committed in the rural areas”, Sichuan Radio, 8 12 1967Google Scholar.

20. Chang, P., “Provincial Party leaders' strategies for survival during the Cultural Revolution”, p. 501Google Scholar; and R, Baum, “Elite behaviour under conditions of stress”, p. 540Google Scholar. Both in Scalapino, R. (ed.), Elites in the People's Republic of China (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1972)Google Scholar.

21. Although the general period of this study is 1958–66, its cut off dates are more precisely October 1957 to May 1966. The former is when the Central Committee first agreed on a specific programmeof decentralization, and the latter when the Cultural Revolution moved from being an inner-Party affair on to a wider stage.

22. If this were a general proposition “regional” would refer either to provinceor region as opposed to national-level. However, in this specific context (i.e. in terms of the accusations madeagainst Li) “regional considerations“ in fact refers to Sichuan, since Li was accused of ruling the region in Sichuan's interests rather than from the point of view of the whole.

23. On the question of the acceptability of local variations in certain circumstances, see inner-Party, Mao's letter of 15 March 1959 in Mao Zedong sixiang wansui, 1967 and 1960Google Scholar, translated in Joint Publications Research Services (JPRS), No. 61269 as “Miscellany of Mao ZedongThought 1949–70,” p. 166.

24. It was even claimed that photographs had been faked! See, e.g., Sichuan Radio, 13 October 1967, “Report of seventh straggle meeting against Li Jingquan held in Chengdu, 5 October’.

25. Dazhang, Li, “Vehement denunciations of the outrageous anti-Party, anti-socialist, and anti-Mao Zedong Thought crimes of the counter-revolutionary revisionist Li Jingquan,” Sichuan Radio, 31 08 1967Google Scholar.

26. “Maoist” is used here as a specific term referring to Mao's principles and aims, in so far as they can be ascertained, at various times between 1958–66, and not as they were later reinterpreted.

27. E.g. see Yunnan ribao editorial, 4 07 1967, as broadcast by Radio, YunnanGoogle Scholar on thesame day.

28. See e.g. Domes, J., The Internal Politics of China, 1949–1972 (London: Christopher Hurst & Co., 1973) especially p. 123 ff.Google Scholar; and Schram, S., “The Cultural Revolution in historical perspective“ in Schram, S. (ed.) Authority, Participation and Cultural Change in China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973), especially p. 59 ffGoogle Scholar.

29. Sichuan ribao, 7 May 1958.

30. Zhongqing ribao, 13 September 1958.

31. Sichuan ribao, 25 June 1959.

32. SCMP, No. 3331, p. 1 from New China News Agency (NCNA) report, 23 October 1964.

33. Zunyi Conference Battle Corps for Defending Zedong, Mao Thought, “Purge away the outrageous crimes of the counter-revolutionary revisionist Li Jingquan in restoring capitalism in the rural areasof the South-west”, Guizhou Radio, 28 06 1967Google Scholar.

34. Fei Hongzhuan, “Vehement denunciation of the anti-Party”, Part II.

35. Ten Glorious Years (Peking, 1960), p. 210 ffGoogle Scholar. especially p. 212 on Mao's role in success.

36. Ibid. p. 210.

37. Shangyou, No. 4 (1958)Google Scholar, Li, Yang, “ Advance by running people's communes well”, p. 20Google Scholar.

38. Schurmann, , Ideology and Organization, p. 491Google Scholar.

39. Hongzhuan, Fei, “Vehement denunciation of the anti-Party”, Part I, Sichuan Radio, 6 09 1967Google Scholar.

40. Jieting, Liu, “Li Jingquan is the Khrushchev of the great South-west”, Guizhou Radio, 17 06 1967Google Scholar.

41. JPRS, No. 61269, pp. 166–67. Letter dated 15 March 1959 from Wuchang.

42. See e.g. “Production brigades strengthen leadership”, Sichuan ribao, 2 September 1961, p. 1.

43. “The superiority of the three-level system as seen from the experience of Longmen Commune, Wusheng, County”, Jingji yanjiu, No. 1 (1961), p. 11Google Scholar.

44. Ibid. p. 14.

45. Provincial instruction on implementing the administrative decentralization of the commune to production team level in Sichuan ribao, 17 November 1961. Sichuan ribao, 8 July 1962, included an article on production teams stressing the success of the policy especially with respect to developing production: “Production team leadership is strong – collective production develops”, p. 1.

46. Li Dazhang, “ Vehement denunciations of the outrageous anti-Party”.

47. Proletarian Revolutionaries of New Guizhou Daily, “The crimes of ‘thebiggest office-holder’“.

48. Revolutionary Rebels of South-western Bureau Offices, “Li Jingquan's opposition to a highly important letter of instruction from Chairman Mao – look at his counter-revolutionary double-dealing features”, Guizhou Radio, 23 12 1967Google Scholar.

49. JPRS, No. 61269, p. 170. Letter dated 29 April 1959.

50. Dazhang, Li, “Government work report 1959”, Sichuan ribao, 24 06 1959Google Scholar.

51. Sichuan ribao, 6 September 1959, “Resolution of the Eighth Plenum of the Second Sichuan Provincial People's Council on adjusting important targets in the 1959 national economic plan and developing a movement to increase production and practise economy”.

52. E.g. Revolutionary Rebels of South-western Bureau Offices, “Li Jingquan's opposition,” Guizhou Radio, 23 12 1967Google Scholar.

₅₃. The following discussion of the Socialist Education Movement and its context nationally is based on the excellent analysis in Baum, R., Prelude to Revolution (New York: Columbia University Press, 1975)Google Scholar.

54. Proletarian Revolutionaries of New Guizhou Daily, “The crimes of ‘the biggest office-holder’”.

55. Sichuan ribao, 12 July 1963, p. 1.

56. “Major points in the history of class struggle”, ibid., 20 June 1963, p. 3.

57. Ibid. 27 March 1963, p. 1.

58. Fei Hongzhuan, “Vehement denunciation of the anti-Party”, Part I.

59. “Highlights of forum on Central Committee Work”, in JPRS, No. 61269, p. 412.

60. Li, Li, “Li Jingquan is the deadly enemy of the people of the Southwest”, Guizhou Radio, 25 06 1967Google Scholar.

61. Proletarian Revolutionaries of the Sichuan Provincial Economics Committee, “ Cut off the counter-revolutionary black hands stretched out by Li Jingquan to the industry and communications front”, Sichuan Radio, 3 10 1967Google Scholar.

62. Proletarian Revolutionaries of the New Guizhou Daily, “The crimes of the biggest office-holder”.

63. Xiting, Zhang, ’Vehement denunciation of Li Jingquan's outrageous crimes”, Guizhou Radio, 23 06 1967Google Scholar.

64. Matthews, T. J., “The Cultural Revolution in Szechwan”, in Vogel, E. (ed.) The Cultural Revolution in the Provinces (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. Harvard East Asian Monograph No. 42, 1971), p. 94CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

65. Li Li, “Li Jingquan is the deadly enemy of the people”.

66. Proletarian Revolutionaries of the Industry and Communications Political Department of the former Sichuan Provincial Party Committee, “The harm of the ‘Five-Act Sichuan Opera’ pushedthrough by Li Jingquan in industry, communications, and capital construction was that it took the capitalist road”, Part II, Sichuan Radio, 22 10 1967Google Scholar.

67. Fei Hongzhuan, “Vehement denunciation of the anti-Party”, Part II.

68. Huchen, Zhang, “The great achievements of fiscal administration in Sichuan during the past decade”, Zaizheng, No. 19 (9 10 1959), p. 24Google Scholar.

69. Lardy, N., “Economic planning in the People's Republic of China: central-provincialfiscal relations“ in China: A Re-assessment of the Economy, A compendium of papers presentedto the Joint Economic Committee, Congress of the United States, 10 07 1975, 94th Congress, 1st Session, p. 108Google Scholar.

70. Jingzhi, Sunet al., Xinan diqu jingji dili (Beijing, 1959), p. 52Google Scholar.

71. Dazhang, Li “Government work report, 1960”, Sichuan ribao, 26 05 1960Google Scholar.

72. Li Dazhang “Government work report, 1959”, ibid. 24 June 1959.

73. Li Pin “Report on the Draft Economic Plan for 1960 in Sichuan”, ibid. 27 May 1960.

74. “The uninterrupted improvement of the relationship between the state and the peasantry”, Xinhua banyuekan, No. 94 (1956), p. 52Google Scholar.

75. Based on figures taken from Sichuan ribao, 1 and 5 October 1959.

76. Ye. Afanas'yeakiy, A., Szechuan (Moscow, 1962)Google Scholar; translated in JPRS No. 15308, p. 114.

77.. Jingzhi, Sun, Xinan diqu jingji dili, p. 26Google Scholar.

78. Chengdu ribao, 23 August 1957.

79. Sichuan ribao, 1 October 1960, p. 1.

80. For example, see ibid. 30 August 1961, p. 1, 20 August 1962, p. 1, 13 November 1963, p. 1, for articles on grain production and procurement.

81. Long Zhen and Wu Lian, “Thoroughly settle accounts with Li Jingquan”.

82. Proletarian Revolutionaries of the Agricultural and Forestry Political Department of theOffice of the former Sichuan Provincial Party Committee, “The ‘Political and Technical Advancement Centre’ is a tool for restoring capitalism”, Sichuan Radio, 19 11 1967Google Scholar.

83. “Speed up the completion of cotton planting – strengthen the management of cotton fields”, (editorial), Sichuan ribao, 5 May 1963, p. 1.

84. “Our province's success in completing the sugar cane planting plan”, ibid. 17 April 1964, p. 1.

85. “Strengthen ideological work – firmly grasp oil bearing vegetable production”, ibid. 23 January 1962, p. 2.

86. Ibid. 14 February 1963, p. 1.

87. For example, ibid. 24 October 1963, p. 1.

88. Jingzhi, Sun, Xinan diqu jingji dili, pp. 2, 33, 36 and 61Google Scholar. During the 1950s raw cotton and cotton cloth were imported from Shaanxi and Hubei.

89. Zunyi Conference Battle Corps for Defending Mao Zedong Thought, “Purge away the outrageous crimes”.

90. “The ‘Meishan 2–5 system’ and planting of experimental plots, thrown up by Li Jingquan, were black examples of revisionism”, Sichuan Radio, 13 February 1968.

91. Proletarian Revolutionaries of the Industry and Communications Political Department of the former Sichuan Provincial Party Committee, “The harm of the ‘Five-act Sichuan Opera’”.

92. Hongqi, No. 2 (1965), p. 29Google Scholar.

93. “The ‘Meishan 2–5 system’”.

94. “Important and good things which gain more than one advantage simultaneously”, Sichuan ribao, 15 April 1964, p. 1.

95. See, for example, Gray, and Cavendish, , Chinese Communism in Crisis (New York: Praeger, 1968), p. 69Google Scholar, or for a brief, erstwhile Maoist account Lois Wheeler Snow, China on Stage (New York: Random House, 1972)Google Scholar.

96. Proletarian Revolutionaries of the New Guizhou Daily, “The crimes of the biggest office-holder”.

97. Sichuan wenxue, No. 7 (1963), p. 71Google Scholar; No. 1, p. 100; No. 4/5, p. 121; No. 10 (1964), p. 45.

98. For example, “Guizhou Province Peking Opera Troupe's performance”, Sichuan ribao, 14 April 1964, p. 3.

99. Several contemporary productions are listed in “Enthusiastically support the performance of the modernized Sichuan Opera“, Sichuanwenxue, No. 1 (1964), p. 100Google Scholar.

100. Sichuan ribao, 8 December 1963, p. 3.

101. For example, ibid. 1 December 1963, p. 3.

102. Red Rebellion Headquarters of the Sichuan Education Department, “Recapture the cultural and educational battle positions from the hands of Li Jingquan and his gang”, Guizhou Radio, 20 06 1967Google Scholar.

103. A set of pictures to commemorate 20th anniversary of Mao's, “Talks at the Yan'an forum on art and literature”, entitled “Art and literature serves workers, peasants, and soldiers”, appeared in Sichuan ribao, 23 05 1962, p. 4Google Scholar.

104. Red Rebellion Headquarters of the Sichuan Education Department, “Recapture the cultural and educational battle positions from the hands of Li Jingquan”.

105. “Ten million become literate in Sichuan”, SCMP, No. 1919, p. 31, NCNA report of 17 12 1958Google Scholar from Chengdu.

106. “Education in secluded South-west China mountain area”, ibid. No. 3378, p. 19, NCNA report of 10 November 1964.

107. The Culture and Education Red Headquarters, “Utterly purge the poison spread by Li Jingquan and his revisionist educational line”, Sichuan Radio, 25 11 1967Google Scholar.

108. “Sichuan University praises some excellent students”, Sichuan ribao, 22 May 1963, p. 3.

109. Xiting, Zhang, “Vehement denunciation of Li Jingquan's outrageous crimes”. Chengdu Military Region, “Totally smash Li Jingquan's criminal plots to sabotage militia construction”, Sichuan Radio, 14 12 1967Google Scholar.

110. Sichuan ribao, 4 March 1960. Report of third session First Provincial Party Congress.

111. “Educate the new generation with the Thought of Mao Zedong”, SCMP, No. 2460, p. 8, from Zhongguo qingnian bao, 22 12 1960Google Scholar.

112. Shihong, Shen, “Totally settle accounts for Li Jingquan's towering crimes in sabotagingthe printing and distribution of Chairman Mao's works”, Sichuan Radio, 29 12 1967Google Scholar.

113. Sichuan ribao, 1 October 1960.

114. “Thoroughly expose and denounce the towering crimes of the counter revolutionary revisionist Li Jingquan in organizing an anti-Party, anti-socialist, and anti-Mao Zedong Thought independent kingdom”, ibid. 26 October 1967. Broadcast by Sichuan Radio, 26 to 30 October 1967.

115. Sichuan ribao, 6 and 7 April 1958. Reports on the visits followed in Renmin ribao on 10 to 12 April 1958.

116. “Thoroughly expose and denounce the towering crimes”, Sichuan ribao, 26 October 1967; Sichuan Radio, 30 October 1967.

117. These may be found in Sichuan ribao, 2 May 1962, p. 1, report of May Day meetingin Chengdu; “Sichuan cadres persist in manual labour”, SCMP, No. 3404, p. 18, from NCNA, 20 02 1965Google Scholar; and Sichuan Radio, 2 May 1966, again a report of a May Day meeting in Chengdu.

118. Moreover, the only picture of Li that it has been possible to find in the Sichuan ribao was published in the group photograph of the Politburo pictured at the second session of the Eighth Party Congress. In this picture, Li Jingquan is not only standing at the far end of the podium (and hence appearing both small and at the edge of the photograph in a bad printing position) but he also has his head turned away from the camera; Sichuan ribao, 26 May 1958.

119. Sichuan ribao, 2 August 1961, p. 1.

120. Hongzhuan, Fei, “Vehement denunciation of the anti-Party”, Part II, Sichuan Radio, 7 09 1967Google Scholar.

121. Proletarian Revolutionaries of the New Guizhou Daily, “The crimes of ‘the biggest office-holder’”.

122. Hongzhuan, Fei, “Vehement denunciation of the anti-Party”, Part II, Sichuan Radio, 7 09 1967Google Scholar.

123. Yan Hongyan in Yunnan (1959); Li Dazhang and Jia Qiyun in Guizhou (both 1965); and LiaoZhigao in Sichuan (1965).

124. The secretaries of the South-west Regional Bureau, 1960–66 were,

The exception was Zhang Jingwu, the secretary of the CCP Xizang Working Committee in the early 1950s.

125. Peng Dehuai was removed as minister of Defence after the Lushan Plenum in 1959, and waspartially rehabilitated in 1962 as third deputy director of the South-west Regional Bureau's Construction Committee. Jianmin, Zhao was a former governor and Party secretary of Shandong dismissed for “regionalism” in 1958Google Scholar, who became a Party secretary in Yunnan in 1963.

126. Revolutionary Rebels of South-western Bureau offices, “Li Jingquan's opposition”.

127. Sichuan ribao, 4 March 1960.

128.. Hongzhuan, Fei, “Vehement denunciation of the anti-Party”, Part II, Sichuan Radio, 7 09 1967Google Scholar.

129. Sichuan ribao, 7 May 1958, the second session of the First Provincial Party Congress, held 16–21 April 1958.

130. Ibid. 4 March 1960, the third session of the First Provincial Party Congress held 25 February – 2 March 1960.

131. At a “summing up” meeting on the Anti-Rightist campaign in Sichuan, ibid. 25 October 1957, p. 1.

132. Revolutionary Rebels of South-western Bureau Offices, “Li Jingquan's Opposition”.

133. On the overall significance of this debate in Chinese politics, see Baum, , Prelude, esp. p. 159Google Scholar.

134. Zhongguo nongye hezuohua yundong shiliao (Peking, 1959), p. 1019Google Scholar.

135. Dazhang's, Li speech to the National People's Congress in 06 1956, “The conditions of Sichuan's Agricultural Co-operativization Movement”, in Xinhua banyuekan. No. 89, p. 39Google Scholar.

136. For a description of these dashe and their problems see article in Sichuan ribao, 28 November 1956, p. 3 by An Jing, “Why the management of large co-ops is at present generally inappropriate”.

137. Teiwes, F. C., “The purge of provincial leaders, 1957–58”, CQ, No. 27, p. 14CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

138. The first was in his preface to an article in The Socialist Upsurge in China's Countryside (Peking: Foreign Languages Press, 1957), entitled “The superiority of large co-ops”, p. 460Google Scholar; and the second was in Article 2 of the first draft of the National Agricultural Development Programme, 1956–1967.

139. Mao's, second speech at the Chengdu Conference of March 1958, in Mao Zedong sixiang wansui (1969), p. 166Google Scholar.

140. Ibid. p. 179. See also Schurmann, Ideology and Organization, p. 202.

141. Jingquan's, Li speech to the Eighth Party Congress, September 1956, in Sichuan ribao, 21 09 1956Google Scholar. Amazingly Li's accusers during the Cultural Revolution even suggested that he had in fact opposed the National Agricultural Development Programme, 1956–67, see, for example, Hongzhuan, Fei, “Vehement denunciation of the anti-Party”, Part II, Sichuan Radio, 7 09 1967Google Scholar.

142. Mao Zedong sixiang wansui (1969), p. 173.

143. For example, with regard to the South-west, it was claimed that, “In agriculture Li agitated for a policy of ‘going it alone’ to sabotnje the socialist collective economy. Li advocated the turning over to private use of barren or fallow land, the setting of production quotas for individual households, and disbanded production teams”. From Hongzhuan, Fei, “Vehement denunciation of the anti-Party”, Part I, Sichuan Radio, 6 09 1967Google Scholar. In general see Baum, , Prelude, pp. 3 and 169Google Scholar.

144. Lardy, , “Economic planning in the People's Republic of China”, p. 106Google Scholar.

145. Jingzhi, Sun, Xinan diqu jingji dili, pp. 3–5Google Scholar.

146. T. J. Matthews, “The Cultural Revolution in Szechwan”.

147. It could be argued that Li Jingquan supported the Second Five-Year Plan and the General Line for Socialist Construction as being in Sichuan's interests not only because they generally replaced the unbalanced development strategy of the First Five-Year Plan with policies stressing provincial self-reliance, but also because specifically for Sichuan the development of its industry and communications through central aid and investment was planned. During the First Five-Year Plan it had become apparent that these were two major weaknesses in the provincial economy and in his speech to the Eighth Party Congress Li had requested direct central intervention.

148. China Topics, YB437, 18 August 1967.

149. Kamow, , Mao and China (New York: Viking, 1973), pp. 307 ffGoogle Scholar.

150. Pamphlet of March 1968, published by the Printing System of the Canton Area Workers' Revolutionary Committee. Translated in Current Background, No. 874 (Hong Kong: U.S. Consulate-General).