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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 17 February 2009
The leadership in literature and the arts that replaced the appointees of the “gang of four” in the late 1970s was formed of the old guard. Their policies were restorationist. They reversed the judgments of the Cultural Revolution, giving approval to all the theories then tarred black, notably “the broad road for realism” (which allowed for artistic diversity), “the deepening of realism” (which meant that not everything needed to be depicted as fine and dandy), and “middle characters” (intended to break the monopoly of proletarian heroes). They interpreted the principle that literature should serve socialism and serve the people relatively liberally. Serving the people meant “the whole people” (a formulation for which Zhou Yang had been condemned); and when the formula of “workers, peasants and soldiers” was repeated, it was pointed out that “workers” included brain workers. The enjoyment principle was also invoked.
1. For all these points, see “Wenyi wei shixian sige xiandaihua fuwu” (“Literature to serve the realization of the Four Modernizations”), by a “specially invited commentator,” Wenyibao (The Literary Gazette), No. 2 (1979).Google Scholar
2. His first stories of this kind, “Chun zhi sheng” (“Sounds of Spring”) and “Hai de meng” (“Dream of the Sea”) were much discussed in 1980. The ground of experimental fiction had already been broken in unofficial magazines. See for example Cooke, Susette and McDougall, Bonnie, “Zhao Zhenkai: two stories,” Renditions, Nos. 19 and 20. pp. 122–78.Google Scholar
3. These new trends are described in Mian, Xie, “Tongwang chengshu de daolu” (“The way to maturity”). Wenyihao. No. 5 (1983).Google Scholar
4. This useful function was acknowledged in “Guangkai wenlu, da you zuowei” (“Open up the path of literature, get great things done”), by an “editorial commentator” in Wenyibao, No. 6 (1979)Google Scholar and repeated less emphatically in Mu, Feng, “Duiyu shehuizhuyi qizhi wenti de yige lijie”Google Scholar (“An interpretation of the question of the socialist flag”), in ibid. No. 10 (1983).
5. Published in Shouhou (Harvest), No. 1 (1982)Google Scholar, and as a book in 1983.
6. These figures are given in Chi, Xu, “Xiandaihua yu xiandaipai” (Modernization and Modernism”), first published in Waiguo wenxue yanjiu (Foreign Literature Studies), No. 1 (1982)Google Scholar, and reprinted in Wenyibao, No. 11 (1982).Google Scholar
7. These figures are given in a conference report entitled “Jianchi wenxue fazhan de zhengque daolu” (“Stick to the correct course for literary development”) in Wenyibao, No. 12 (1982).Google Scholar
8. This is a composite picture based on various articles, but most of these elements can be found in the very knowledgeable article by Zhongwen, Qian entitled “Lun dangqian wenyililun zhong de xiandaizhuyi sichao” (“On the Modernist trend of thought in contemporary literary theory”), Wenxue pinglun. No. 1 (1984).Google Scholar
9. See McDougall, Bonnie, “Poems, poets and poetry 1976: an exercise in the typology of modern Chinese literature,” Contemporary China, Vol. II, No. iv (Winter 1978), pp. 76–124.Google Scholar
10. Mao Zedong sixiang wansui 1969 (Long Live the Thought of Mao Zedong). Hong Kong, n.d., p. 180.Google Scholar
11. This and other poems by Bei Dao are translated by McDougall, Bonnie in Notes From the City of the Sun: Poems by Bet Dao (Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 1983. University East Asia Papers 34)Google Scholar. The translation here is my own.
12. “Yu qingnian shiren tan shi” (“Talking of poetry with young poets”), Shikan, No. 10 (1980).Google Scholar
13. “Menwai shitan” (“Remarks on poetry from an outsider”), Shikan, No. 10 (1980).Google Scholar
14. The proceedings were reported in “Yici relie er lengjing de jiaofeng” (“A spirited but sober crossing of swords”), ibid. No. 12 (1980).
15. “Jiejian, chuangxin ji qita” (“Taking pointers, new departures, and other things”), ibid. No. 12 (1980).
16. “Wenxue biaoxian shoufa tansuo bitan” (“A written exchange on experiments with means of expression in literature”), Wenyibao, No. 9 (1980).Google Scholar
17. “Yishu chuangxin he minzu chuantong” (“New departures and national traditions in art”), ibid. No. 9 (1980).
18. “Emerge” is the most convenient all-purpose word for translating.jueqi, but the literal meaning is “rise up,” with the connotation of rebellion or challenge.
19. “Zai xinde jueqi mianqian.” The article is reprinted in Hua, Bi and Ling, Yang (eds), Jueqi de shiqun: Zhongguo dangdai menglongshi yu shilun xuanji (The Emergent Body of Poetry: A Selection of “Shadowy Poetry” and Essays on Poetry From Contemporary China (Hong Kong. 1984). pp. 83–85.Google Scholar
20. “Gei yishu de gexinzhe geng ziyou de kongqi” (“Give the reformers in art some freer air”).
21. “Xinde meixue yuanze zai jueqi,” Shikan, No. 3 (1981). Emphasis added.Google Scholar
22. E.g. Liangpei, Zhou, “Yougan ‘xinde meixue yuanze’ de ‘jueqi’” (“In reaction to the ‘emergence’ of ‘new aesthetic principles’”), Wenyibao, No. 10 (1981).Google Scholar
23. Xu Chi was the most notable exponent of the argument that modernization entails Modernism. See supra, fn. 6.
24. One such being Ji Xian, who after promoting Modernist poetry in the magazine Xiandai shi (Modern Poetry) in Taiwan, from 1953 to 1963Google Scholar was said to have reversed his stand; see Zhi, Lin, “Yao dong yidian wenxue tongshi” (“One needs to understand a bit of the general history of literature”), Wenyibao, No. 6 (1983).Google Scholar
25. “Jianchi wenxue fazhan de zhengque daolu” (as supra, fn. 7).
26. “Dangqian wenyi chuangzuo he lilun de xiandaihua, minzuhua wenti” (The current issue of the modernization and naturalization of literary creation and theory), Wenxue lilun yanjiu. No. 1 (1983).Google Scholar
27. “Ye tan xiandaihua yu xiandaipai” (“My own views on modernization and Modernism”), Wenyibao, No. 3 (1983).Google Scholar
28. “Guanyu sixiang zhengzhi gongzuo wenti” (“Concerning problems in ideological and political work”), quoted in Hua, Bi, Zhongguo xin xieshizhuyi wenyi lungao (A Preliminary Discussion of China's Neir Realist Literature) (Hong Kong, Dangdai wenxue yanjiu she. 1984), p. 257.Google Scholar
29. Ibid. pp. 260–61.
30. Reprinted in Hua, Bi and Ling, Yang, The Emergent Body of Poetry, pp. 97–129.Google Scholar An abridged translation has been published in Renditions Nos. 19 and 20, under the rather fanciful title of “A volant tribe of bards.”
31. Ibid. pp. 102–103.
32. Ibid. p. 106.
33. “Juqi, gujin, tuanjie” (“Raise the flag, energize, unite”).
34. A number of articles stemming from this conference were printed in Wenxue pinglun (Literary Criticism). No. 6 (12 1983).Google Scholar
35. This poetry conference was reported in Wenyibao, No. 12 (1983).Google Scholar
36. “Zai ‘jueqi’ de shenglang mianqian” (“In the face of the ‘emergent’ clamour”).
37. “Guanyu shi de duihua” (“A dialogue on poetry”), ibid.
38. “Qingchu jingshen wuran yu jiefang yishu shengchanli” (“Cleaning up spiritual pollution and releasing artistic productive capacity”) by an “editorial commentator,” Wenyibao, No. 1 (1984).Google Scholar
39. “Deng Yingchao tan ruhe fazhan he fanrong wenyi” (“Deng Yingchao on how to make literature develop and thrive”), Wenyibao, No. 7 (1984).Google Scholar
40. See reports in the February 1985 issues of the Hong Kong magazines Zhengming (Contention) and Jingbao (The Mirror).
41. McDougall, Bonnie S., Zedong, Mao's“Talks at the Yan'an Conference on Literature and Art”: A Translation of the 1943 Text with Commentary (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. 1980. Michigan Papers in Chinese Studies, No. 39). pp. 17–19.Google Scholar
42. Qing, Ai, “Liaojie zuojia, zunzhong zuojia”Google Scholar (“Understand writers, respect writers”), written 11 March 1942, reprinted Ai Qing zhuanji (Special Collection on Ai Qing) (Jiangsu renmin chubanshe. 1982). p. 325.Google Scholar
43. E.g. by Jun, Fan in “Xiandai wenxue lishi daolu he xiandai zuojia de lishi pingjia” (“This historical course of modern literature and the historical evaluation of modern writers”), Wenyibao, No. 9 (1983).Google Scholar
44. As supra, fn. 6.
45. E.g. by Kejia, Yuan, “Xifang xiandaipai wenxue santi” (“Three matters concerning western Modernist literature”), Wenyibao, No. 1 (1983).Google Scholar
46. Quoted from Boxiu, Zhao, The Revival of Political Science in China (Berkeley: Center for Chinese Studies, University of California, 1983), p. 15.Google Scholar
47. Jie, Zhang, “Jinnianlai Sulian guanyu shehuizhuyi xianshizhuyi lilun wenti de taolun” (“The discussion on theoretical questions regarding socialist realism in the Soviet Union in recent years”), Wenyibao, No. 5 (1984)Google Scholar; and a longer, more sophisticated article by Xia Zhongyi called “Dangdai Sulian guanyu ziandaipai de pingjia jiankuang” (“A résumé of the contemporary Soviet assessment of Modernism”) in ibid. No. 10 (1983).
48. An argument put forward by, inter alia, Wenpeng, Tao in “Bu neng paoqi minzu shige de yishu chuantong” (“We cannot abandon the artistic tradition of our national poetry”), Wenxue pinglun. No. 6 (1983).Google Scholar
49. Definitively by Qiaomu, Hu, Guanyu rendaozhuyi he yihua wenti (“On the questions of humanism and alienation”) (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 01 1984), passim.Google Scholar