1. The two most recent notable exceptions in this regard are Suttmeier, Richard P., Science, Technology and China's Drive for Modernization (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1981)Google Scholar and Baum, Richard (ed.), China's Four Modernizations (Boulder, Col.: Westview Press, 1980)Google Scholar. For an examination of S&T issues during the Maoist period see also Suttmeier, Richard P., Research and Revolution: Science Policy and Societal Change in China (Lexington: D.C. Heath, 1974)Google Scholar and Orleans, Leo, “Research and development: mood, management and measurement,” in US Congress, Joint Economic Committee, An Economic Profile of Mainland China, 90th Congress, 1st Session, 1968. pp. 549–78.Google Scholar

2. See Simon, Denis Fred and Goldman, Merle (eds.), Science and Technology in Post- Mao China (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989).Google Scholar

3. Gould, Sidney (ed.), Sciences in Communist China (Washington, D.C: American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1961).Google Scholar

4. Dosi, Giovanni et al., Technical Change and Economic Theory (London: Pinter Publishers, 1988).Google Scholar

5. See Xiyao, Liu, “Learn from Zhou Enlai's thinking and practice in connection with the modernization of science and technology - commemorating the 30th anniversary of China's call for marching towards modern science and technology.” Hongqi (Red Flag), No. 22 (16 November 1986), pp. 7–11.Google Scholar

6. See Orleans, Leo (ed.), Science in Contemporary China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1980).Google Scholar

7. See Simon, Denis Fred and Rehn, Detlef, Technological Innovation in China: The Case of the Shanghai Electronics Industry (Cambridge: Ballinger Publishers, 1988).Google Scholar

8. Lewis, John and Litai, Xue, China Builds the Bomb (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988).Google Scholar

9. See Zenghe, Yang, “Mao Zedong and China's atom bombs,” Beijing Review, 5–11 September 1988, pp. 29–30Google Scholar. See also Mainan, Gu, “Deng Jiaxian: China's father of the atom bomb,” Beijing Review, 11 August 1986.Google Scholar

10. See, e.g., Orleans, Leo, Professional Manpower and Education in Communist China (Washington, D.C.: National Science Foundation, 1961).Google Scholar

11. See some of the articles in Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Science and Technology in the People's Republic of China (Paris: OECD, 1977).Google Scholar

12. Suttmeier, Research and Revolution, esp. pp. 58–95.

13. Guoguang, Liu, Wensen, Liang et al., China's Economy in 2000 (Beijing: New World Press, 1987), pp. 214–33.Google Scholar

14. Chu-yuan, Cheng, Scientific and Engineering Manpower in Communist China, 1949–1963 (Washington, D.C.: National Science Foundation, 1965), pp. 268–87.Google Scholar

15. Guangyuan, Yu (ed.), China's Socialist Modernization (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1984), p. 623.Google Scholar

16. Liu Guoguang and Liang Wensen, China's Economy in 2000, p. 216.

17. For a discussion of these issues from the perspective of the economy and price system see Guoguang, Liu and Ruisun, Wang, “Restructuring the economy,” in Guangyuan, Yu (ed.), China's Socialist Modernization (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1984), pp. 71–146Google Scholar. See also Reynolds, Bruce (ed.), Chinese Economic Reform: How Far, How Fast? (San Diego: Academic Press, 1988).Google Scholar

18. For an overview of the Caohejing project see Simon, Denis and Rehn, Detlef, “Technological innovation in Shanghai's electronics industry,” Research Policy, October 1987Google Scholar. See also “Shanghai establishes Caohejing as new technology development zone,” Jiefang ribao (Liberation News), 24 July 1988, p. 1.Google Scholar

19. For an overview of some of the different viewpoints see “Research riddle faces scientists,” China Daily, 8 April 1988, p. 5.Google Scholar

20. Simon, Denis Fred, “Rethinking R&D,” China Business Review, July-August 1983, pp. 25–31.Google Scholar

21. Lili, Ma, “The concept of China's scientific research reform: a visit to Wu Mingyu, vice-minister of the State Science and Technology Commission,” Huasheng Bao, 10 April 1985, p. 31; trans: in Joint Publication Research Service (JPRS), China Science and Technology (CST)-85–028, 27 August 1985, p. 1.Google Scholar

22. “Let the running water flow more quickly to the fertile land,” Guangming ribao (Guangming Daily), 30 March 1985, p. 1.

23. The Chinese usually refer to their S&T system as having five primary components: (1) the institutes under the Chinese Academy of sciences; (2) the research institutes under the industrial ministries; (3) the university-based research institutes; (4) the military-dedicated research units; and (5) the institutes at the provincial and municipal level.

24. “CPC Central Committee's 13 March 1985 decision on the reform of the science and technology management system,” Xinhua, 19 March, in Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS)-PRC, 21 March 1985, pp. Kl-9.

25. Interestingly, however, funds for the Chinese Academy of Sciences actually increased from RMB 728 million to RMB 740 million. See China Statistical Yearbook (Beijing, 1988).Google Scholar

26. According to Chinese statistics, in 1986, R&D funding per scientist/engineer in China was 30.700 yuan, equivalent to about one-tenth that of the United States, oneeighth that of Japan, and one-half that of the Soviet Union. See Zhongguo keji luntan (Forum of Science and Technology in China), No. 2 (1988), pp. 3–6.

27. According to early Chinese estimates, China spends about 0.6% of its national income on R&D while the industrialized countries spend between 2.0 and 3.0%. However. China states that currently she spends 1.6% of GNP on R&D.

28. In the Seventh Five-Year Plan, China will concentrate on 76 key S&T tasks: about 30% of the funds earmarked for civilian S&T will go to support these projects. See JPRS-CST-86–015, 25 April 1986, p. 38.

29. China Daily, 8 January 1985, p. 1.

30. “Chinese Science Academy stresses co-operation,” Xinhua, 5 November 1988; trans, in FBIS-CHI-88–218, 10 November 1988, pp. 31–32.

31. Xiaobing, Yang, “One academy, two systems,” Beijing Review, 5–11 December 1988, p. 7.Google Scholar

32. See the eight-point plan proposed by Hu Qiheng, secretary of the CAS, to a group of American Government trade and economic officials in June 1988. See “Academy of Sciences services economy,” Xinhua, 21 June 1988; trans, in FBIS-CHI-88–122, 24 June, 1988, pp. 31–32.

33. For an overview of the effects of the patent law see Fuying, Li, “A look at China's implementation of its patent law,” Jishu shichang bao (Technology Market News), 24 December 1985, p. 3Google Scholar. By the end of 1985 there had been 13, 573 patent applications, 60% of which were from domestic sources and 40% of which came from foreign sources. By April 1988 China's State Patent Bureau had handled 68,996 applications, 13,671 have been approved, 12,719 from China and 952 from abroad. See “Scientific and technological progress,” Beijing Review, 31 October-6 November 1988, p. 30.Google Scholar

34. “The technical market must serve economic construction: an interview with Guo Shuyuan, vice-minister of the State Science and Technology Commission,” in Liaowang (Outlook), 27 May 1985, pp. 38–39; trans, in JPRS-CST-85–038, 5 November 1985, p. 3.Google Scholar

35. One indication of the success of the technology market is the experience of Wuhan. According to Chinese sources, prior to 1981, the use rate of technological results from the area's S&T organizations was only 10%. After a technology market was introduced between 1981–1983, the use rate went up to 50%; by 1984 the use rate was up to 60%. See Gongwen, Fang, “On commercializing technological results,” Hongqi, 16 August 1985, pp. 28–33; trans, in JPRS-CRF-85–021, 15 October 1985, pp. 48–58.Google Scholar

36. “Tap greater potential,” Renmin ribao, 19 June 1985, p. 5.Google Scholar

37. The industrial breakdown was as follows: 19.3% in light industry, 12.6% in food processing, 10.6% in building materials, 7.2% in petrochemicals, 19.9% in mechanical items, and 18.8% in electronics.

38. In each of 10 provinces - Liaoning, Sichuan, Shanghai, Beijing, Shandong, Tianjin, Ningxia, Hubei, Shaanxi and Heilongjiang-the amount of technology market transactions surpassed 100 million yuan; in Liaoning the amount exceeded 550 million yuan and in Sichuan it reached 490 million yuan. See “China's technology market is flourishing,” Renmin ribao, 23 February 1988, p. 1.Google Scholar

39. Xijiao, Zhong, Zhongguo jishu shichang kaifa zhinan (A Guide to the Development of Chin's Technology Markets) (Shenyang: Liaoning People's Publishing House, 1988).Google Scholar

40. On 10 January 1985, the state promulgated the “Interim Regulations on Technology Transfer.” These regulations spell out, though not in great detail, the legal and financial aspects of domestic technology transfer transactions.

41. Yi, Xu, Baosen, Chen, and Wuxia, Liang, Shehuizhuyi jiage wenti (Problems in the Socialist Price System) (Beijing: Chinese Finance and Economics Press. 1982); trans, in JPRS-CEA-85–019, 20 February 1985, esp. pp. 75–80.Google Scholar

42. Suttmeier, R. P., “New conflicts in the research environment,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, October 1984, pp. 7S-11S.Google Scholar

43. See Boxi, Li, et al., Zhongguo jishu gaizao wenti yanjiu (Analysis of the Problems Regarding China's Technical Transformation), Vol. 1–2 (Shanxi People's Publishing House, 1984).Google Scholar

44. “Technical renovation is the catchword,” Intertrade, October 1985, pp. 9–13.Google Scholar

45. Amei, Zhang, et al., “The economic system as a barrier to technological progress,” Zhongguo keji luntan, No. 2 (1988). pp. 32–35.Google Scholar

46. According to one source, the reasons for the lack of enthusiasm about the acquisition of technology include: (a) the idea of turning technological achievements into commodities has not really been fostered in the minds of enterprise leaders; (b) they regard the adoption of new technology and the development of new products only as a matter of expediency; (c) managers lack the strategic concept of long-term development and are satisfied with maintaining the status quo; and (d) they tend to be complacent and do not think they need to resort to the technology market. See Ge Yuehua and Li Yuming, “Why are some industrial enterprises not enthusiastic about purchasing new technology” Jishu shichang bao, 18 February 1986, pp. 1–2; trans, in JPRS-CST -86–022, 9 June 1986, pp. 41–46.

47. Overall, there continues to be a shortage of funds for technology development at the enterprise. Many enterprises lack funds for equipment renewal or the purchase of new technology. See Ge and Li, “Why are some industrial enterprises not enthusiastic?“

48. Hongqi, 16 August 1985, pp. 28–33; trans, in JPRS-CRF-85–021, 15 October 1985, pp. 57.

49. State Science and Technology Commission, Statistical Data on Science and Technology of 1985 (Beijing, 1986).Google Scholar

50. “Research institutes to merge with enterprises,” China Dailv, 5 February 1987, p. 1.

51. Zhenhuan, Sun, “A study on the question of an integrated military-civilian industrial system,” Jingji yanjiu (Economic Research), No. 5 (20 May 1985), pp. 68–73.Google Scholar

52. One piece of evidence that this has begun to change is that many of the scientists formerly involved in China's nuclear weapons programme are now associated with the country's nuclear energy programme.

53. Goods for civilian consumption accounted for 18% of the total output of defence factories in 1980; by 1984 the number jumped to 26%. In 1985 more than 70% of the motorcycles and cassette tapes sold on the domestic market originated in the defence industry. “Weapon makers in civilian ventures,” China Daily, 6 January 1986.Google Scholar

54. See the comments of Chi Haotian, chief of the General Staff, about how “army building should accord with overall economic development.” China Daily, 2 August 1988, p. 3.Google Scholar

55. Wei, Gong, “The reform of the national defence S&T system should be more extensive,” Zhongguo keji luntan, No. 1 (1988), pp. 16–18.Google Scholar

56. There are questions, however, about how strong an alliance really exists between the R&D side and the production side of the NDSTIC. Some suggest that the relationship is rather fragile, and its long-term survival depends very much of the role played by former Defence Minister Zhang Aiping.

57. See “Modern defence technology system formed,” Xinhua, 17 December 1987Google Scholar; trans, in FBIS-CHI-87–243, 18 December 1987, pp. 15–16. This also is clearly one of the important implications that can be drawn from an article by Zhang Aiping, former minister of national defence and former director of the NDSTC. See Aiping, Zhang, “Strengthen leadership and do a good job in importing technology.” Hongqi, 16 December 1985, pp. 4–9.Google Scholar

58. “Deregulation and contract system said key to further S&T system reform,” Zhongguo keji luntan. No. 2 (1988), pp. 1–2.Google Scholar

59. See Simon, Denis Fred, “China's S&T intellectuals in the post-Mao era: a retrospective and prospective glimpse,” Journal of Northeast Asian Studies, Summer 1985, pp. 57–82.Google Scholar

60. “Returned students feeling stifled,” China Daily, 31 August 1984. p. 4.

61. Guangming ribao, 21 December 1984, p. 1; trans, in JPRS-CST-85–010, 12 June 1985, pp. 22–24.

62. “Scientists gain centres for research,” China Daily, 13 July 1985.

63. Hua Qinxin, “Key national biomacromolecular laboratory,” Kexuc bao (Science News), 25 March 1988, p. 2.

64. See the remarks made by Song Jian at a national conference to exchange experiences in decontrolling scientific and technical personnel held in Shijiazhuang in December 1987. “Song Jian supports decontrol in science,” Xinhua, 23 December 1987; trans, in FBIS-CHI-87–248, 28 December 1987, p. 27.

65. “Guanxi reports on persecution of engineer.” trans, in FBIS-PRC, 20 July 1984, p. P3.

66. For an overview of Chinese technology import practices and problems, see Cao Jiarui, “The present condition of and problems in China's technology imports.” Parts I-III, Liaowang (Overseas Edit.), 5 May 1986, pp. 14–15; 12 May 1986. pp. 18–19; and 19 May 1986, pp. 12–13.

67. “High-tech imports on rise despite exchange shortage,” China Economic Weekly, 6 June 1988, p. 4.Google Scholar

68. This policy, which in Chinese is known as “baohu zhuyi“ (protectionist policy), was officially announced by Vice-premier Li Peng in January 1986.

69. The large number of these lines have proved problematic because many of them relying extensively on imported components. In 1986–87, due to the revaluation of the yen, some factories had to curtail production due to a shortage of foreign exchange.

70. For a discussion of the extent of assimilation limitations see Simon, Denis Fred, “China's capacity to assimilate foreign technology: an assessment,” in Joint Economic Committee, China Under the Four Modernizations, 97th Congress, 2nd Session, August 1982.Google Scholar

71. According to one article, between 1950 and 1979, $13.5 billion had been spent on foreign technology acquisition, 93% of which on complete plants. The amount spent on acquisition of technical information was less than $200 million, even adding in fees for royalties, etc. See Yang Haitian. “Position in international technology transfer discussed,” trans, in JPRS 80736, 5 May 1982.

72. “China switches emphasis from equipment imports to technology.” China Daily, 11 September 1982, p. 4.

73. Almanac of China's Economy, 1987 (Beijing: Economic Management Publishing House, 1987), p.VI-177.Google Scholar

74. Zhu Yuening, “Give weight to the importation of technology and machinery,” FBIS-PRC, 13 August 1982, pp. K.12–15.

75. For a broad overview see Cao Jiarui, “The present condition of and problems in China's technological imports” (Pts 1–3), Liaowang (overseas edit.), 5 May 1987, pp. 14–15; 12 May 1987, pp. 18–19; and 19 May 1987, pp. 12–13.

76. “Trade journal calls for a better technology import strategy,” Guoji maoyi wenti (Problems in International Trade), No. 4 (1987); trans, in JPRS-CAR-88–004, 12 February 1988, pp. 53–54.Google Scholar

77. Liang, Zhang, “Redundant technological imports,” Intertrade, March 1987, pp. 30–31.Google Scholar

78. China Daily (Business Weekly Supplement). 18 January 1988. p. 2.

79. “Spark programme boosts rural economy,” Xinhua, 14 January 1988: trans, in FBIS-CHI-88–010, 15 January 1988, p. 29.

80. “Spark Plan succeeding in countryside,” China Daily (Business Weekly supplement), 16 December 1986, p. 4.

81. China Daily, 17 December 1986, p. 4.

82. “Spark Plan showing results,” Xinhua, 10 May 1987; trans, in JPRS-CAR-87–001, 5 June 1987, pp. 74–76.

83. Jian, Song, “The origin and prospects of the Spark Plan.” Liaowang, No. 45 (9 November 1987), p. 15.Google Scholar

84. Xue Tao, “Problems in the course of implementing the Spark Plan and measures for dealing with them,” Nongmin ribao (Peasants Daily), 5 May 1987. p. 2.

85. Yicheng, Wang, “Analysis of the impediments to the achievement of the Spark Plan and thoughts on countermeasures,” Zhongguo keji luntan. No. 1 (1988), pp. 49–51, 54.Google Scholar

86. Zongyi, Cheng, “Create technology-intensive zones to push the Spark Plan to a new high,” Zhongguo Keji luntan, No. 2 (1988), pp. 57–58.Google Scholar

87. “Scientific invention area set up,” China Daily, 14 May 1988. p. 3.

88. “Plan to promote agricultural technology,” China Daily, 4 February 1988, p. 3.

89. “Classes train rural residents,” Xinhua, 18 January 1988; trans, in FBIS-CHI-88–010, 15 January 1988, pp. 29–30.

90. For an overview of these debates see Department of Organization of the CCP Central Committee et al. (eds.), Yingjie xin de jishu geming (Welcome to the New Technological Revolution), Vols 1 and 2 (Changsha: Hunan Science and Technology Publishing House, 1984).Google Scholar

91. Xiang, Huan, “Catch up with the industrially advanced countries.” Guangming ribao, 2 March 1984, p. 4 trans, in JPRS-CST-85–013, 1 May 1985. pp. 10–12.Google Scholar

92. Xiyao, Liu, “On some experience in the development of science and technology: things learned through studying the report to the 13th Party Congress.” Hongqi, No. 1 (January 1988), pp. 13–16.Google Scholar

93. Ziyang, Zhao, “Advance along the road of socialism with Chinese characteristics,” Beijing Review, 9–15 November 1987, p. 29.Google Scholar

94. State Science and Technology Commission, An Outline of the High Technology Development Program in China (Beijing: State Science and Technology Commission, 1988).Google Scholar

95. “Government pursues high-tech development plans,” Xinhua, 8 August 1988; trans, in FBIS-CHI-88–153, 9 August 1988, p. 23.

96. “Experts discuss high-tech,” China Daily, 13 June 1988, p. 2.

97. “Government pursues high-tech development plans,” p. 23.

98. State Science and Technology Commission, An Outline.

99. China Daily, 13 June 1988, p. 2.

100. “Torch Plan to promote technology,” Xinhua, 31 July 1988; trans, in FBIS-CHI-88–148, 2 August 1988, p. 36.

101. “Torch will light up high-tech industry,” China Daily, 8 August 1988, p. 1.

102. “Torch Plan to boost hi-tech industry,” China Economic Weekly (London), Vol. 3, No. 20 (24 October 1988), p. 3.Google Scholar

103. “The silicon valley syndrome,” China Trade Report, August 1988, pp. 12–13.

104. Rogers, Everett and Larsen, Judith, Silicon Valley Fever (New York: Basic Books, 1984).Google Scholar

105. Six sites have been approved by the central government. See “Six hightechnology silicon valleys planned,” Zhongguo xinwen she (China News Agency), 6 May 1988; trans, in FBIS-CHI-88–097, 19 May 1988, pp. 35–36.

106. “China's silicon valley in the ascendent,” Beijing Review, 19–25 September 1988, pp. 19–22.

107. “Beijing seeks to expand hi-tech development zone,” Xinhua, 2 July 1988; translated in FBIS-CHI-88–128, 5 July 1988, p. 71.

108. “Beijing science city to open,” Ta KungPao, 14 March 1988, pp. 1, 3.

109. “Beijing launches its own silicon valley,” China Daily, 6 August 1988, p. 1.

110. “Open zone for S&T research,” China Daily, 30 March 1988, p. 1.

111. Data within this section are drawn from a four part article in Jisuanji xinxi bao (Computer Information Gazette), 14 June 1988, 12 July 1988, 19 July 1988 and 30 August 1988.

112. “Enlightenment gained from the Zhongguancun Electronics Street,” Renmin ribao, 11 March 1988, p. 1.

113. “High-tech pioneer backs ventures,” China Daily, 27 January 1987, p. 2.

114. “Scholars succeed with China's IBM,” China Daily, 17 February 1987, p. 3.

115. “China's IBM - Stone's ambition,” Beijing Review, 23 February 1987, pp. 6–8.

116. “Firm accused of poaching personnel, technology,” South China Morning Post, 11 June 1988, pp. 1,7.

117. “Computer company launches joint venture,” China Daily (Business Weekly Supplement), 22 June 1987, p. 1.

118. Huang Tingwei and Wang Ling, “The international situation in retrospect and prospect,” Liaowang (overseas edit.), 11 January 1988, pp. 24–25.

119. Li Peng, “Make full use of favourable conditions in science and technology to contribute more to economic construction,” Keji ribao, 13 March 1988, p. 1.

120. “Scientific work must get priority,” Beijing Review, 4–10 April 1988, pp. 11–12.

121. “Science reform to be deepened,” Beijing Review, 6–12 June 1988, p. 13.

122. “Mao Hong proposes pushing forward technological progress,” Renmin ribao, 15 January 1988, p. 2.

123. “Scientists praise successful collider experiment,” Xinhua, 20 October 1988; trans, in FBIS-CHI-88–204, 21 October 1988, p. 18.

124. “World attention focused on electron accelerator,” Xinhua, 21 October 1988; trans, in FBIS-CHI-88–206, 25 October 1988, p. 5.

125. “Deng, Zhao view electron-positron accelerator,” Xinhua, 24 October 1988; trans, in FBIS-CHI-88–206, 25 October 1988, pp. 16–17.

126. “Aerospace to be a top priority,” China Daily, 10 December 1988, p. 1.

127. Ibid.

128. “Satellite results described,” Xinhua, 22 June 1988; trans, in FBIS-CHI 88–122, 24 June 1988, pp. 3–4.

129. “Dependence on foreign satellites comes to an end,” China Daily, 25 March 1988, p. 3. See also Beijing Review, 2–8 January, 1989, p. 11.

130. “Achievements of Jiuquan satellite centre viewed,” Beijing Domestic Service, 5 October 1988; trans, in FBIS-CHI-88–197, 12 October 1988, pp. 36–37.

131. Yu Qingtian, “Xichang: centre of spacecraft technology,” Xiandaihua (Modernization), No. 6 (June 1988), p. 33.

132. “China determined to improve rockets and satellites,” China Daily, 13 May 1988, p. 1.

133. “Aerospace minister aims high for future,” China Daily, 6 July 1988, p. 1.

134. “Changzheng rocket engines displayed for first time in Guangzhou Export Commodities Fair,” Zhongguo Xinwen She, 11 October 1988; trans, in FBIS-CHI- 88–200, 17 October 1988, pp. 36–37.

135. “Still awaiting lift-off,” Far Eastern Economic Review, 12 May 1988, pp. 70–71.

136. Major questions have existed, however, regarding the Long March III, which as of mid 1987 had only completed one successful launch. See “Intensified Chinese space activities,” Technische Rundschau, 20 March 1987, pp. 96–97.

137. “Satellite launch program defended,” Renmin ribao, 20 June 1988, p. 3; trans, in FBIS-CHI-88–124, 28 June 1988, pp. 21–22.

138. “Satellite plea by top engineer,” China Daily, 6 July 1988, p. 1.

139. “Know-how export on the increase,” Beijing Review, 26 February-6 March 1988, p. 43.

140. “State Council approves steps to encourage technology exports,” Keji ribao, 22 September 1987, p. 2.