Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-8ctnn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-22T16:41:09.904Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Anti-Black Racism in Post-Mao China*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 February 2009

Extract

Expressions of anti-black sentiment by Chinese students have caught the world's attention periodically since the end of the 1970s. Demonstrations against African students in Nanjing and other cities between late 1988 and early 1989 received wide press coverage. Because the African population in China is small and transient, some observers saw these events as a manifestation of a vestigial xenophobia, not as part of a developing trend of thought within a key segment of Chinese society. Placed next to the brutal ethnic conflicts that plague much of the world, the episodic, non-lethal incidents in China seemed evanescent, with only fleeting implications for China's foreign policy.

Type
Focus on Race and Racism in China
Copyright
Copyright © The China Quarterly 1994

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1. See Deconde, Alexander, Ethnicity, Race and American Foreign Policy (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1992).Google Scholar

2. Hevi, Emmanuel, An African Student in China (London: Pall Mall, 1963), p. 113Google Scholar; Schott, Margaret, “And Red Faces, Blacks,” Far Eastern Economic Review (FEER), No. 132 (19 June 1986), p. 20Google Scholar; “Backgrounder: about 1,500 African students in China,” Xinhua, 31 December 1988 in Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS)–CHI–89–002 (4 January 1989), p. 20; Tarn, Tammy, “Africa policy to continue despite row,” Hong Kong Standard (HKS), 5 January 1989, p. 7Google Scholar; Southerland, Daniel, “China's long-held image of foreigners fuels racial conflict,” Washington Post (WP), 3 January 1989, p. A8.Google Scholar

3. Hutchison, Alan, China's African Revolution (Boulder: Westview, 1975), pp. 186–89Google Scholar; Ogunsanwo, Alaba, China's Policy in Africa, 1958–1971 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974), p. 85Google Scholar; Burns, John, ”Africans accuse Chinese of racism,” New York Times (NYT), 10 June 1986, p. A5.Google Scholar

4. See Hevi, An African Student in China, ch. 6.

5. See Larkin, Bruce, China and Africa, 1949–1970 (Berkeley: University of California, 1971).Google Scholar

6. Zedong, Mao, “Message of greetings on the occasion of the 45th Annual Conference of the ANC,” Renmin ribao (RMRB), 14 December 1957Google Scholar, in Survey of the China Mainland Press, No. 1674 (18 December 1957), p. 56; “Statement in support of the Afro-American struggle against violent repression,” RMRB, 16 April 1968, in Peking Review, Vol. 11, No. 16 (19 April 1968), p. 5.

7. See Yuan, Gao, “In China, black isn't beautiful,” NYT, 25 January 1989, p. A23.Google Scholar

8. Compare, for example, Shambaugh, David, Beautiful Imperialist: China Perceives America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), pp. 161–62 and pp. 216–17.Google Scholar

9. An assault by Chinese students in Nanjing on foreign, mainly African, students took place in mid-April 1979, but apparently did not result in serious injuries or demonstrations. See Barker, Anthony, “China to take more foreign students despite past tensions,” Reuter, 13 December 1984Google Scholar; “Other reports: African students’ protest demonstration in Peking,” Agence France Presse (AFP), 18 July 1979 in British Broadcasting Corporation, Summary of World Broadcasts (BBC/SWB), FE/6173/A5/2 (21 July 1979).Google Scholar

10. A Soviet source claimed that 2,000 Chinese participated in the attack. “Excesses against Afro-Asian students in China: outcome of chauvinism,” Radio Peace and Progress (Moscow), 19 July 1979, in BBC/SWB, SU/6174/A3/7 (23 July 1979).

11. AFP, 8 July 1979, in FBIS-CHI-79–132 (9 July 1979), pp. 02–03; AFP, 9 July 1979, 1527 GMT; AFP, 11 July 1979, in BBC/SWB, FE/6166/BII/19 (13 July 1979); Associated Press (AP), 25 July 1979. Where a source is not otherwise specified, wireservice accounts derive from the Nexis on-line database.

12. Reuter, 18 July 1979; “African students march in China,” WP, 18 July 1979, p. A20; “Other reports: African students’ protest demonstration in Peking,” AFP, 18 July 1979, in BBC/SWB FE/6173/A5/2; AP, 25 July 1979; Xinhua, 25 July 1979, in FBIS-CHI-79–145 (26 July 1979), pp. L1–L2; “Unity and friendship come first,” Zhongguo qingnian (Chinese Youth), 26 July 1979, in FBIS-CHI-79–145 (26 July 1979), p. L2.

13. Xinhua, 11 August 1979, in FBIS-CHI-79–158, p. 07; Xinhua, 11 September 1979, in FBIS-CHI-79–180, p. 05; “China: Restive Africans,” Africa Confidential, Vol. 22, No. 24 (1 July 1981), p. 8.

14. Snow, Philip, The Star Raft: China's Encounter with Africa (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1988), p. 205.Google Scholar

15. Southerland, D., “Frictions Between Chinese, Africans surface,” WP, 5 June 1986, p. A33Google Scholar; Southerland, D., “200 African students protest racism in China” Los Angeles Times (LAT), 9 January 1987, p. 6Google Scholar; “Africans reported to attack Chinese in Nanking,” AP, 25 December 1988.

16. “Tianjin student incident isolated one: education official,” Xinhua, Item No. 0607075 (7 June 1986); “African students in China,” Xinhua, Item No. 121528 (15 December 1982); “Foreign students clash with Chinese,” AP, 26 May 1986; “Backgrounder about 1,500 African students in China,” Xinhua, 31 December 1988 in FBIS-CHI-89–002 (4 January 1989).

17. Richard Pascoe, Reuter, 23 May 1980; “Arab and African students clash at Chinese school,” AP, 13 June 1980; Weisskept, Michael, “Simple love story of mixed cultures ends tragically in Peking,” WP, 8 November 1980, p. A23Google Scholar; Wilson, Dick, “A paler shade of yellow,” New Society, Vol. 70, No. 1136 (11 October 1984), p. 5253Google Scholar; Wilson, D., “Black and white view from the Middle Kingdom,” FEER, No. 126 (13 December 1984), pp. 5255Google Scholar; United Press International (UPI), 28 May 1986; Southerland, D., “Frictions between Chinese, Africans surface,” WP, 5 June 1986, p. A33Google Scholar; Thomson, Robert, “China looks up and down at the big noses,” Financial Times (FT), 12 July 1986, p. 2Google Scholar; Thomson, R., “Overseas students in Peking protest march,” FT, 7 January 1987, p. 4Google Scholar; Kristof, Nicholas, “Chinese in Nanjing hold racist rally,” NYT, 27 December 1988, p. A1Google Scholar; Kazer, William, “Chinese rally against Africans, envoys rush to Nanking,” Reuter, 27 December 1988Google Scholar; “African students attacked in China,” Chicago Tribune (CT), 27 December 1988, p. 2; Becker, Jasper, “China's Africa crisis,” Manchester Guardian Weekly, 15 January 1989, p. 9Google Scholar; Pomfret, John, “African students isolated from angry Chinese,” AP, 27 December 1988Google Scholar; Southerland, D., “Chinese isolate Africans for protection,” WP, 27 December 1988, p. A14Google Scholar; O'neill, Mark, “Chinese-African violence – racism or provocation,” Reuter, 30 December 1988Google Scholar; Southerland, “China's long-held image of foreigners fuels racial conflict,” p. A8; Sharma, Yojana, “China: racial incidents could cloud relations with Africa,” Inter Press Service, 4 January 1989Google Scholar; Prentice, Eve-Ann, “Bleak celibacy for Africans in China,” Sunday Telegraph, 8 January 1989, p. 10Google Scholar; Schmetzer, Uli, “Africans’ privileges rile Chinese,” CT, 10 January 1989, p. 4Google Scholar; Holley, D., ”They face widespread prejudice,” LAT, 10 January 1989, p. 1.Google Scholar

18. James Miles, UPI, 7 January 1987; O'neill, M., “Arab and African students protest in Peking,” Reuter, 8 January 1987Google Scholar; Gargan, Edward, “African students in Beijing march in outrage at a racial slur,” NYT, 9 January 1987, p. A4Google Scholar; “African students receive assurances, return to classes,” AP, 12 January 1987.

19. Fraser, David, “Recurrent Chinese campus riots highlight clash of cultures,” Reuter, 2 June 1986Google Scholar; Southerland, D., “Frictions between Chinese, Africans surface,” WP, 5 June 1986, p. A33Google Scholar; Southerland, D., “China denies clash hurt Africa ties,” WP, 8 June 1986, p. A24Google Scholar; Thomson, R., “Tianjin 4; ‘Open door’ policy has its problems,” FT, 20 August 1986, p. 12Google Scholar; James Miles, UPI, 7 January 1987; Southerland, “200 African students protest racism in China,” p. 6; Abrams, Jim, “Students boycott classes, say request for written guarantees rejected,” AP, 9 January 1987.Google Scholar

20. AFP, 28 December 1988, in FBIS-CHI-88–250 (29 December 1988), pp. 2–3; Schmetzer, “Africans’ privileges rile Chinese,” p. 4; Snow, The Star Raft, pp. 201–202.

21. “Troublemakers at friendship hotel arrested,” Xinhua, Item No. 100845, 8 October 1983; Reuter, 8 October 1983.

22. “Foreign students in Peking plan police protest march,” Reuter, 8 December 1985; Graham Earnshaw, “Peking University quiet with no sign of unofficial gatherings,” Reuter, 9 December 1985.

23. ‘Twenty-five foreigners besieged in Chinese university hall,” Reuter, 25 May 1986; Kyodo, 26 May 1986, in FBIS-CHI-86–101 (27 May 1986), p. Al; “Chinese police detain students after five-hour siege,” Reuter, 26 May 1986; “Foreign students clash with Chinese,” AP, 26 May 1986; UPI, 27 May 1986; I. Chang, “Foreign students held in hotel after conflict,” AP, 27 May 1986; Southerland, “Frictions between Chinese, Africans surface,” p. A33; AFP, 1 July 1986 in FBIS-CM-86–127 (2 July 1986), p. G2.

24. “Incident involving African students at Tianjin University a ‘misunderstanding’,” Xinhua, 28 May 1986 in BBC/SWB, FE/8272/BII/1 (30 May 1986); “Students conflict in Tianjin quietens down,” Xinhua, Item No. 0530081, 30 May 1986; “Foreign students said to be refusing to leave Chinese hotel,” Reuter, 30 May 1986; “China denies race was factor in clash,” UPI, 4 June 1986.

25. Abrams, J., “Government official disapproves of demonstration, denies racism,” AP, 7 June 1986Google Scholar; UPI, 2 June 1986; Fraser, D., “Recurrent Chinese campus riots highlight clash of cultures,” Reuter, 2 June 1986Google Scholar; Thomson, R., “Peking to investigate clash at student dance,” FT, 9 June 1986, p. 2.Google Scholar

26. “Africans in Peking hit racial bias,” LAT, 6 June 1986, p. 2; “Foreign students march in Peking to demand safety,” Reuter, 6 June 1986; Burns, J., “Africans accuse Chinese of racism,” NYT, 10 June 1986, p. A5Google Scholar; AFP, 11 June 1986 in FBIS-Cffl-86–115(16 June 1986), p. II.

27. Abrams, J., “African students protest racial discrimination,” AP, 6 June 1986Google Scholar; Southerland, D., “China denies clash hurt African ties,” WP, 7 June 1986, p. A24Google Scholar; Mann, Jim, “Peking denies racism caused clashes between Chinese and African students,” LAT, 8 June 1986, p. 16Google Scholar; “Tianjin student incident isolated one: education official,” Xinhua, Item No. 0607075,7 June 1986; “China says no students to be expelled following clash,” Reuter, 7 June 1986; “China criticizes foreign student protests,” UPI, 7 June 1986; “Beijing denies brawl was caused by racial discrimination,” Kyodo, 7 June 1986; Mann, Jim, “China tries joining the Third World,” LAT, 15 June 1986, p. 5:2.Google Scholar

28. “Foreign Ministry promises no punishment, students to return,” AP, 12 June 1986; AFP, 13 June 1986, in FBIS-CHI-86–115 (16 June 1986), p. 12; “Other reports: African ambassadors reportedly called in to settle student dispute in China,” Kyodo, 13 June 1986 in BBC/SWB, FE/8281/A5/1 (16 June 1986).

29. See, e.g. Libreville (Gabon) Africa No. 1, 8 June 1986; Lagos (Nigeria) Domestic Service, 8 June 1986, in FBIS-MEA-86–110 (9 June 1986), pp. SI, T6; Lagos Domestic Service, 10 June 1986, in FBIS-MEA-86–111(10 June 1986), p. T4.

30. “African students sent back to site of campus clash,” Reuter, 30 June 1986; AFP, 1 July 1986 in FBIS-CHI-86–127 (2 July 1986), p. G2.

31. “Chinese students leave for Africa to deliver donation,” Xinhua, Item No. 1114169,14 November 1986; “Chinese students donate 500,000 yuan for ‘African calamities’,” Xinhua, 12 November 1986 in BBC/SWB FE 8417/A5/1 (15 November 1986).

32. Chang, “Foreign students held in hotel after conflict”; Yu Yuanchao, “Nation aims to get more students from Africa,” China Daily (CD), 5 November 1986, p. 1.

33. Kazer, W., “China keeps silent on charges of torture, hidden apartheid,” Reuter, 4 January 1989.Google Scholar

34. “ ‘Expert’ says ‘high risk’ of contracting AIDS in China,” Zhongguo tongxun she, 19 February 1993, in BBC/SWB, FE/1626/B2, (2 March 1993). Surveys in China show that AIDS is largely conceived as a “foreign problem.” See Godfrey, Deidre, “China: AIDS threat hangs over world's most populous nation,” Inter Press Service, 14 October 1992Google Scholar; Leicester, John, “Experts fear China may be downplaying AIDS threat,” UPI, 28 September 1992.Google Scholar

35. AFP, 29 December 1988 in FBIS-CHI-88–250 (29 December 1988), pp. 3–4; M. Del Vecchio, UPI, 30 December 1988; AFP, 30 December 1988 in FBIS-CHI-88–251 (30 December 1988), p. 1; Roche, A., “African students seize Chinese teacher after AIDS slur,” Reuter, 30 December 1988; “Racial conflict hits second Chinese city,” LAT, 30 December 1988, p. 2Google Scholar; O'Neill, “Chinese-African violence – racism or provocation”; Southerland, D., “Racial conflict spreads to second Chinese city,” WP, 31 December 1988, p. A15Google Scholar; Luard, T., “China's racial tension spread by AIDS claim,” Daily Telegraph (DT), 31 December 1988, p. 8Google Scholar; Pomfret, J., “African student sentenced without trial to 15 days,” AP, 2 January 1989Google Scholar; Kazer, W., “China keeps silent on charges of torture, hidden apartheid,” Reuter, 4 January 1989Google Scholar; “Three Africans admit breaking China's law,” LAT, 5 January 1989, p. 2.

36. AFP, 3 January 1989 in FBIS-CHI-89–001 (3 January 1989), pp. 20–21; Pomfret, J., “Racial tensions spread to Beijing,” AP, 3 January 1989Google Scholar; “China racial unrest moves to Beijing,” LAT, 3 January 1989, p. 2; UPI, 3 January 1989; Pomfret, J., ”Chinese students demonstrate after incident with African,” AP, 3 January 1989Google Scholar; Southerland, D., “Chinese protests against Africans spread to Beijing, one other city,” WP, 3 January 1989, p. A16; AFP, 4 January 1989 in FBIS-CHI-88–002 (4 January 1989), p. 18; Ma Lixin, CD, 4 January 1989, p. 3;Google ScholarKazer, W., “Chinakeepssilentonchargesoftorture, hiddenapartheid, ”Reuter,4January 1989Google Scholar; Southerland, D., “OAU protests to China on attacks on Africans,” WP, 5 January 1989, p. A27;Google ScholarLuard, T., “China faces diplomatic crisis over race relations,” DT, 4 January 1989, p. 8Google Scholar; “A detailed account of the demonstration staged by Chinese students at the Beijing Language Institute,” Zhongguo tongxun she, 4 January 1989 in FBIS-CHI-89–003 (5 January 1989), pp. 14–15; Tarn, T., HKS, 5 January 1989, p. 7Google Scholar; Pomfret, J., “China claims Africans confess, boycott continues in Beijing,” AP, 6 January 1989.Google Scholar

37. Wilhelm, K., “Africans boycott classes, demand protection,” AP, 6 January 1989Google Scholar; AFP, 7 January 1989 in FBIS-CHI-89–005 (9 January 1989), p. 21.

38. Wilhelm, K., “Ghana Embassy calls for China to release student,” AP, 9 January 1989.Google Scholar

39. AFP, 22 February 1989, in FBIS-CHI-89–038 (28 February 1989), p. 16.

40. AFP, 3 January 1989, in FBIS-CHI-89–001 (3 January 1989), pp. 19–20; Roche, A., “China faces worsening racial tension as conflict spreads,” Reuter, 3 January 1989Google Scholar; Kazer, “China keeps silent on charges of torture, hidden apartheid”; Kristof, N., “Africans in Beijing boycott classes,” NYT, 5 January 1989, p. A12Google Scholar; Southerland, “Chinese protests against Africans spread to Beijing, one other city,” p. A16; Abrams, J., “Racial tension spreads to fourth Chinese city,” AP, 4 January 1989Google Scholar; Holley, D., “Africans press China on student dispute,” LAT, 5 January 1989, p. 13Google Scholar; Pomfret, J., “Class boycott ends with school agreeing to letter about AIDS,” AP, 5 January 1989Google Scholar; “Wuhan refutes foreign news agencies’ fabricated ‘news',” Xinhua, 7 January 1989 in FBIS-CHI-89–005 (9 January 1989), pp. 10–11; Kristof, N., “China assails foreign reports of racial strife,” NYT, 1 January 1989, p. 1:6.Google Scholar

41. “Kenyan paper comments on clashes between African and Chinese students,” BBC/SWB, MF70349/U (4 January 1989); Kazer, “China keeps silent on charges of torture, hidden apartheid”; Roche, A., “African students in Peking start classroom strike,” Reuter, 3 January 1989Google Scholar; “China: unbeautiful black,” Economist, 7 January 1989, p. 30; Roche, A., “China faces worsening racial tension as conflicts spread,” Reuter, 3 January 1989; “Three Chinese held over race violence,” South China Morning Post (SCMP), 6 January 1989, pp. 1, 17Google Scholar; Hong Kong Commercial Radio Service, 6 January 1989, in FBIS-CHI-89–004 (6 January 1989), p. 16; “Libyan and Nigerian reaction to clashes between African and Chinese students,“ BBC/SWB ME/0348/11,3 January 1989; AFP, 4 January 1989, FBIS-CHI-88–002 (4 January 1989), p. 19.

42. Dinmore, Guy, “African students say they quit China because of racism,” Reuter, 15 March 1989Google Scholar; Pomfret, J., “18 Africans to leave China, saying it's racist,” AP, 16 March 1989.Google Scholar

43. Segal, Gerald, “China and Africa,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, No. 519 (January 1992), p. 121Google Scholar; “Peking redefines its ties,” Africa, No. 138 (February 1983), pp. 32–34.

44. Luard, T., “China faces feud with Africa as race row grows,” DT, 5 January 1989, p. 9.Google Scholar

45. Xin, Bao, “There is no racial discrimination on China's school campuses,” Liaowang Overseas Edition, No. 3 (16 January 1989), p. 1Google Scholar in FBIS-CHI-89–013 (23 January 1989), p. 18.

46. Wilson, Dick, “Asian racism: cold truths are beginning to surface,” NYT, 15 April 1992, p. 7.Google Scholar

47. “China says no change in African policy, denies racism,” Reuter, 27 March 1989; Wilhelm, K., “Zairean students take over embassy,” AP, 24 July 1989.Google Scholar

48. Fan, C. W., “Cultural differences sparked row: students,” HKS, 6 January 1989, p. 1.Google Scholar

49. Kristof, N., “China's burst of rage: a show of racism and something more,” JV1T, 8 January 1989, p. 4:3Google Scholar; M. Del Vecchio, “Unrest reveals face of Chinese racism,” UPI, 7 January 1989; Southerland, “China's long-held image of foreigners fuels racial conflict,” p. A8.

50. See, e.g. Editorial, “Sino-African student clash and aftermath,” Da gong bao (Hong Kong), 12 January 1989, p. 2 in FBIS-CHI-89–008 (12 January 1989), pp. 11–12; Weijan Shan, “China's discrimination against… Chinese,” Christian Science Monitor, 18 January 1989, p. 19; Mark Petracca, “In China, only foreign students know comfort,” NYT, 26 January 1989, p. A22.

51. Gargan, E., “For Chinese, sophisticated Africans are contradictions in cultural terms,” LATS, January 1989, p. 5Google Scholar; Southerland, “China's long-held image of foreigners fuels racial conflict,” p. A8; Holley, D., “They face widespread prejudice,” LAT, 10 January 1989, p. 1Google Scholar; SCMP, 15 January 1989, p. 11, 15–16: M. Del Vecchio, “Unrest reveals face of Chinese racism,” UPI, 7 January 1989.

52. Kristof, N., “Black Africa leaves China in a quandary,” NYT, 30 December 1988, p. A3Google Scholar; Pomfret, J., “Chinese-African tensions spotlight racism, disaffection,” AP, 8 January 1989Google Scholar; Holley, “They face widespread prejudice,” p. 1.

53. O'Neill, “Chinese-African violence – racism or provocation.”

54. Kristof, “Black Africa leaves China in quandary,” p. A3; Gargan, “For Chinese, sophisticated Africans are contradictions in cultural terms,” p. 5.

55. “Analysis of Events” (typescript foreign student document, Nanjing, c. January 1989), p. 2; Roche, A., “African student group asks to leave ‘racist’ China,” Reuter, 18 January 1989.]Google Scholar The results of the survey discussed below cast doubt on the theory that the Nanjing events reflected a male concern with free-spending Africans. Compared to male colleagues, Chinese female university student respondents rated Africans marginally worse for such key indicators of sexual worth as attractiveness and behaviour. Both sexes thus could be expected to disapprove of African-Chinese liaisons because of the negritude, not the wealth, of Africans.

56. Miller, Stuart C., The Unwelcome Immigrant: The American Image of the Chinese, 1785–1882 (Berkeley: University of California, 1969), pp. 184–87Google Scholar; Cohen, Jerome, China and the West: Society and Culture, 1815–1937 (London: Hutchinson, 1979), p. 166.Google Scholar

57. “The shock of recognition,” Asiaweek, Vol. 15, No. 3 (20 January 1989), p. 18.

58. Pomfret, “Chinese-African tensions spotlight racism, disaffection.”

59. T. Luard, “China faces feud with Africa as race row grows,“ p. 9.

60. Southerland, D., “Chinese students continue protests against Africans,” WP, 30 December 1988, p. A21Google Scholar; Raspberry, W., “In China or the south racism is racism,” WP, 12 January 1989, p. A19Google Scholar; “Violence at Christmas,” Asiaweek, Vol. 15, No. 2,(13 January 1989), p. 25.

61. Melvin, Oliver and Johnson, James, “Inter-ethnic conflict in an urban ghetto: the case of blacks and Latinos in Los Angeles,” Research in Social Movements, Conflict and Change, No. 6 (1984), pp. 5794.Google Scholar

62. Protzman, Ferdinand, “German attacks rise as foreigners become scapegoats,” NYT, 2 November 1992, p. A1Google Scholar.

63. Wolfman, Jonathan, “In China, racism serves needs of change,” NYT, 10 January 1989, p. A22.Google Scholar

64. SACHED, Freedom From Below: the Struggle for Trade Unions in South Africa (Durban: Durban LACOM, 1988), p. 32.Google Scholar

65. Greenawalt, Kent, Discrimination and Reverse Discrimination (New York: Knopf, 1982).Google Scholar

66. Singh, R. R. P., Hindu-Muslim Relations in Contemporary India (New Delhi: Wisdom Publishers, 1990).Google Scholar

67. Laber, Jeri, “Bosnia: questions about rape,” New York Review of Books, Vol. XL, No. 6 (25 March 1993), p. 6.Google Scholar

68. “Analysis of events,” p. 2; “Africans made scapegoat for China's economic woes, student says,” Reuter, 23 March 1989.

69. See Raspberry, “In China or the south racism is racism,” p. A19; Kidder, Rushworth, “No race can be an island,” CSM, 30 January 1989, p. 13.Google Scholar

70. Isaacs, Harold, “Group identity and political change: the role of color and physical characteristics,” in Franklin, John Hope (ed.), Color and Race (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1968), pp. 9293.Google Scholar

71. Snow, The Star Raft p. 188; Kristof, N., “In China, beauty is a big Western nose,” NYT, 29 April 1987, p. C4Google Scholar; Gao Yuan, “In China, black isn't beautiful,” p. A23; Pomfret, “Chinese-African tensions spotlight racism, disaffection”; Macdougall, Colina, “Racial clashes damage China's Third World standing,” FT, 5 January 1989, p. 3.Google Scholar

72. Dikötter, Frank, The Discourse on Race in Modem China (London: Hurst & Co., 1992), pp. 3839, 49, 9192.Google Scholar

73. Dikötter, F., “Group definition and the idea of ‘race’ in Modern China (1793–1949),” Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 13, No. 3 (July 1990), p. 424.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

74. Dikotter, The Discourse on Race, pp. 79, 82–83, 88–91, 93.

75. Ibid. pp. 144, 147–48; Dikotter, , “Group Definition,” p. 429; “Eugenics in Republican China,” Republican China, Vol. 15, No. 1 (1990), pp. 117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

76. Biao, Lin, Long Live the Victory of People's War (Beijing: Foreign Language Press, 1965).Google Scholar

77. Rosen, Stanley, “Students and the state in China: the crisis in ideology and organization,” in Rosenbaum, Arthur (ed.), State and Society in China: The Consequences of Reform (Boulder: Westview Press, 1992), p. 172.Google Scholar

78. See Rosen, Stanley, “Public opinion and reform in the PRC,” Studies in Comparative Communism, Vol. 22, No. 3 (Summer-Autumn, 1989) pp. 153170.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

79. The numerical data underlying the survey results are available from the author upon request.

80. See, e.g., Coon, Carleton, The Origin of Race (New York: Knopf, 1962), pp. 655–56.Google Scholar Proponents of the idea of racial differences in intelligence usually extend their views to class. See Haghighat, Cahpour, Racisme Scientifique: Offensive Contre L'Egalite Sociale (Paris: Editions L'Hamattan, 1988)Google Scholar; Mensh, Elaine, The IQ Mythology: Class, Race, Gender and Inequality (Carbondale: Southern Illinois Press, 1991).Google Scholar

81. Wudunn, Sheryl, “China and Japan on path to better ties,” NYT, 10 August 1991, p. A3.Google Scholar

82. Breman, Jan, Imperial Monkey Business: Racial Supremacy in Social Darwinist Theory and Colonial Practice (Amsterdam: VU University Press, 1990).Google Scholar

83. Hooks, Bell, Black Looks: Race and Representation (Boston: South End Press, 1992).Google Scholar See, e.g. Jefferson, Thomas, Notes on the State of Virginia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1782, 1965), pp. 138143.Google Scholar

84. Krzyk, Bogdan, “ ‘You pay more, big nose',” World Press Review (January 1993), pp. 2627Google Scholar; Bernstein, Iraet al., “Chinese and white concepts of attractiveness,” Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, Vol. 18, No. 2 (1981), p. 59.Google Scholar

85. Yin, Ma, Questions and Answers About China's Minority Nationalities (Beijing: New World Press, 1985), p. 57.Google Scholar Scholars disagree as to whether this attitude involves racism or a mere feeling of cultural superiority on the part of Han Chinese. See Tom Grunfeld, A.. “In search of equality: relations between China's ethnic minorities and the majority Han,” Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, Vol. 17, No. 1 (1985), p. 55Google Scholar fn. 3.

86. See Gordon, Paul, Daily Racism: The Press and Black People in Britain (London: Runnymede Press, 1989).Google Scholar

87. See Scheckner, Peter, “E. T. and the Beijing Spring Movement: American culture and Chinese values,” Midwest Quarterly, Vol. 34, No. 2 (Winter 1993), pp. 151165.Google Scholar On media stereotyping and an antipathy toward the dark-skinned as determinants of Korean anti-black prejudice, see Cheng, Lucie and Espiritu, Yen, “Korean businesses in black and Hispanic neighborhoods: a study of intergroup relations,” Sociological Perspectives, Vol. 32, No. 4 (1989), p. 526.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

88. For treatments of Japanese anti-black prejudice based on interviews and the explication of literary texts, see Hiroshi Wagatsuma, “The social perception of skin color in Japan,” in Franklin, Color and Race pp. 149–156; Russell, John G., “Narratives of denial: racial chauvinism and the black other in Japan,“ Japan Quarterly, No. 38 (October-December 1991), pp. 416428.Google Scholar The same technique has been applied to anti-Chinese prejudice in the United States. See, e.g., Fong, Colleen, Tracing the Origins of a Model Minority: A Study of the Depictions of Chinese-Americans in Popular Magazines (University of Oregon, unpub. Ph.D. diss., 1989).Google Scholar

89. See Yu, George, “Africa in Chinese foreign policy,” Asian Survey, Vol. 28, No. 8 (August 1988), pp. 849862.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

90. See the statement of Zhou Enlai quoted in Kahin, George, The African-Asian Conference (Ithaca: Cornell, 1956), p. 60.Google Scholar

91. Isaacs, “Group identity and political change,” p. 93.

92. See Sinkler, George, The Racial Attitudes of American Presidents: from Abraham Lincoln to Theodore Roosevelt (Garden City: Doubleday, 1971).Google Scholar

93. See, e.g., Morris, Roger, Uncertain Greatness: Henry Kissinger and American Foreign Policy (New York: Harper & Rowe, 1977), p. 132Google Scholar; Reagan, Ronald, An American Life (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1990), p. 357Google Scholar; Hitchens, Christopher, Blood, Class and Nostalgia: Anglo-American Ironies (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1990), p. 357.Google Scholar

94. Martin, Philip, “Racism and the fight for rights collide in a painful paradox,” LAT, 23 June 1990, p. B7.Google Scholar

95. Kwong, Julia, “The 1986 student demonstrations in China: a democratic movement,” AsUm Survey, Vol. 28, No. 9 (September 1988) p. 970CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Lufrano, Richard, “Nanjing Spring: the 1989 student movement in a provincial capital,” Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, Vol. 24, No. 1 (1992), pp. 1942.Google Scholar

96. Lufrano, “Nanjing Spring,” p. 42. For an account of the 1989 movement in one city where leaders tried to dissociate it from the “floating population” of ex-peasants living in the city, see Chan, Anita and Unger, Jonathan, “Voices from the protest movement in Chongqing: class accents and class tensions,” in Unger, J. (ed.), The Pro-Democracy Protests in China: Reports from the Provinces (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1991), pp. 106126.Google Scholar