^1. Map 1 is based on Lugeng, Li and Luhong, Zhang (eds.), Zhongguo lishi ditu tianchong lianxi ce: Zhongguo lishi: di san ce (“Fill in the Blanks” Map Workbook for Chinese History: Chinese History Series, Workbook Three) (Renmin jiaoyu chubanshe, 2nd ed., 1987), p. 7.Google Scholar Hakka areas are added according to Zhongguo da baike quanshu: yuyan wenzi (The Great Chinese Encyclopedia: Languages and Writing Systems), Vol. 19 (Beijing: Zhongguo da baike quanshu chubanshe, 1988), p. 238.Google Scholar These are supplemented by Xianglin, Luo, Kejia yanjiu daolun (An Introduction to the Study of the Hakka: Ethnicity, History, and Culture) (Taipei: Shijie keshu di er ci keqin dahui [1933], 1973), pp. 57–58.Google Scholar Places names are added according to Zhonghua renmin gongheguo fen sheng dituji (Province-by-province Maps of the People's Republic of China) (Beijing: Ditu chubanshe, 1977).Google Scholar For topographic maps see The Times Atlas of China (New York: Quadrangle, 1974), pp. 4–5.Google Scholar Photographs of base areas and the Long March route appear in Lawrence, Anthony, China: The Long March (London: Merhurst Press, 1986).CrossRefGoogle Scholar Map 2 is also based on Lugeng, Li and Luhong, Zhang, “Fill in the Blanks” Map Workbook, p. 7Google Scholar, supplemented by Zhongguo da baike quanshu: jun shi (The Great Chinese Encyclopedia: The Military), Vol. 32 (in 2 vols.) (Beijing: Zhongguo da baike quanshu chubanshe, 1989), Book 2, Maps 2 and 3, pp. 1300–303Google Scholar; and by “Zhongguo gong-nong hong jun Chang Zheng tu” (“A map of the Long March of China's workers, peasants and Red Army”), Ci Hai (Shanghai: Shanghai cishu chubanshe, 1979)Google Scholar, endpaper to Vol. 1. Map 3 is adapted from Lugeng, Li and Luhong, Zhang, “Fill in the Blanks” Map Workbook, p. 9Google Scholar, with Hakka areas added as in Map 1. Map 4 is also based on this, itself a simplification of “A map of the Long March.” See also the detailed Map 3 in The Great Chinese Encyclopedia: The Military, Vol. 2, facing p. 1303.Google Scholar Compare with maps in Harrison, James Pinckney, The Long March to Power: A History of the Chinese Communist Party, 1921–72 (New York: Praeger, 1972), pp. 240–41Google Scholar; and in Kuo, Warren, Analytical History of the Chinese Communist Party (Taipei: Institute of International Relations, 1970, Vol. 3), endpaper.Google Scholar

^2. Xin bian dubao shouce (A New Handbook for Newspaper Readers) (Zhejiang jiaoyu chubanshe, 2nd ed., 1988), pp. 278–281.Google Scholar

^3. Seagrave, Sterling, The Soong Dynasty (New York: Harper and Row, 1985), pp. 17, 53.Google Scholar Another three heroes are Hunan natives from the Xiang sub-ethnic group of Han Chinese: Mao Zedong (Xiangtan County), Peng Dehuai (Xiangtan County) and Liu Shaoqi (Ningxiang County). The non-Hakka, non-Hunan heroes are: Li Dazhao (Leting, Hebei), Qu Qiubai (Changzhou, Jiangsu), Zhou Enlai (Huai'an, Jiangsu) and Dong Biwu (Huang'an, Hubei).

^4. Leong, S. T., “The Hakka Chinese of Lingnan: Ethnicity and Social Change in Modern Times,” in Pong, David and Fung, Edmund S. K. (eds.), Ideal and Reality: Social and Political Change in Modem China 1860–1949 (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1985), p. 314.Google Scholar

^5. Gucheng, Li, Zhonggong zui gao lingdaoceng (China's Highest Leaders) (Hong Kong: Mingbao chubanshe, 1988).Google Scholar

^6. Fulin, Zheng (ed.), Zhongguo geming he jianshe lishi shiqi renwu cidian (A Dictionary of Historical Figures from China's Revolutionary and Socialist Construction Eras) (Changchun: Jilin renmin chubanshe, 1988)Google Scholar; Si, Fan and Jiaqi, Ding, “Ye Jianying,” in Hua, Hu (ed.), Zhonggong dangshi renwu zhuan (Biographies of Chinese Communists), Vol. 40 (of 41), (Xian: Renmin chubanshe, 1983), pp. 1–116.Google Scholar

^7. Zhonghua minzu fengsu cidian (A Dictionary of Ethnic Customs in China) (Nanchang: Jiangxi jiaoyu chubanshe, 1988).Google Scholar

^8. Salisbury, Harrison, The Long March; The Untold Story (New York: Harper and Row, 1985), p. 136.Google Scholar Hakka sources also claim Yang Shangkun as a Hakka.

^9. Alley, Rewi, “Guang'an, birthplace of Deng Xiaoping,” Eastern Horizon, Vol. 19, No. 8 (1980), p. 8Google Scholar; Hsin, Chi, Teng Hsiao-ping-A Political Biography (Hong Kong: Cosmos Books, 1978), p. 4Google Scholar; Franz, Uli, Deng Xiaoping (Boston: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1988), p. 11Google Scholar; Gucheng, Li, Chinese's Highest Leaders, p. 264.Google Scholar

^10. Smedley, Agnes, The Great Road: The Life and Times of Chu Teh (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1956), p. 14.Google Scholar

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^12. Kuo-t'ao, Chang [Zhang Guotao], The Rise of the Chinese Communist Party 1921–1927 (Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas Press, 1971), Vol. 1, p. 23.Google Scholar

^13. Shih, Vincent Y. C., The Taiping Ideology: Its Sources, Interpretations, and Influences (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1967), p. 305.Google Scholar

^14. Yi, Chen, “Xuanzi geming de daolu” (“Choosing the Revolutionary Road”), in Yuansu, Nie, Wusu, Chen, Zuxi, Zhou and Guilan, Guo (eds.), Chen Yi zao nian de huiy he wengao (Chen Yi's reminiscences on his Youth and his Early Literary Works) (Chengdu: Sichuan renmin chubanshe, lsqb;1963] 1981), pp. 27–28.Google Scholar

^15. Suyin, Han, The Crippled Tree (New York: G.P. Putnam's, 1965), pp. 22–23Google Scholar; Xianglin, Luc, Kejia shiliao huibian (Historical Sources for the Study of the Hakka) (Hong Kong: Zhongguo xueshe, 1965), pp. 94–97Google Scholar; Xianglin, Luo, An Introduction, pp. 35–36.Google Scholar

^16. Counties are listed in Xianglin, Luo, An IntroductionGoogle Scholar; listed and discussed in Hashimoto, Mantaro J., The Hakka Dialect: A Linguistic Study of its Phonology, Syntax and Lexicon (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973), pp. 6–13Google Scholar; revised in The Great Chinese Encyclopedia: Languages and Writing Systems, pp. 237–39Google Scholar; supplemented by Fujian sheng shi xian cheng qu tu ce (Maps of Fujian Cities, Counties, and Municipal Districts) (Fuzhou: Fujian sheng ditu chubanshe, 1985).Google Scholar

^17. Norman, Jerry, Chinese (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), p. 188.Google Scholar

^18. Hu Yaobang's Hakka identity is discussed in Zhongmei, Yang, Hu Yaobang: A Chinese Biography (trans. Wycoff, William A., ed. Cheek, Timothy) (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1988), pp. 160–65.Google Scholar I found this book only after I had written about Hu as a “probable Hakka.”

^19. Gucheng, Li, China's Highest Leaders, pp. 11–15.Google Scholar

^20. Personal communication, Portland, Oregon, 22 June 1991.

^21. Blake, C. Fred, Ethnic Groups and Social Change in a Chinese Market Town (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1981), pp. 63–66.Google Scholar

^22. Klein, Donald W. and Clark, Anne B., Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Communism 1921–1965 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971), p. 1009.Google Scholar

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^26. He also described how the British had used ethnicity to divide and conquer. Nicole Constable, personal communication, 27 November 1990. Japanese imperialists also manipulated Hakka-Cantonese animosities.

^27. Cohen, Myron, “Being Chinese: the peripheralization of traditional identity,” The Living Tree: The Changing Meaning of Being Chinese Today, Daedalus, Vol. 120, No. 2 (1991), pp. 113–134Google Scholar; Wu, David Yen-ho, “The construction of Chinese and non-Chinese identities,” in The Living Tree, pp. 159–180.Google Scholar

^28. Xianglin, Luo, Guofu jiashi yuanliu kao (An Investigation into the Ancestry of the Father of our Country) (Taipei: Taiwan shangwu yinshuguan, [1943], 1954)Google Scholar, Historical Sources, An Introduction, pp. 263–65.Google Scholar

^29. Xianglin, Luo's Investigations, p. 15Google Scholar cite a copy of partial family tree supplied by Sun's older sister. But they also rely, bizarrely, on Sun's English monolingual biographer's romanization of Sun's ancestral village (in Linebarger, Paul, Sun Yat Sen and the Chinese Republic (New York & London: Century, 1925), p. 37).Google Scholar Luo, unable to find anything corresponding to a “Kung Kun” on the East River, argues that Sun followed a traditional Hakka taboo on identifying one's ancestral village to outsiders, and so referred to the village by a nickname. Yang Zhongmei also claims Sun as a Hakka in Hu Yaobang, p. 160.Google Scholar Recent migration from Linebarger, Sun Yat Sen, p. 37Google Scholar; mixed surname village, men overseas, p. 38, “river pirate” attack on fortress houses, pp. 57–62, “Sun the Silent”, p. 246.Google Scholar Girls in village school from Restarick, Harry Bond, Sun Yatsen Liberator of China (New Haven: Yale, 1931), p. 5.Google Scholar Teacher a recently demobilized Taiping from Schiffrin, Harold Z., Sun Vat-sen: Reluctant Revolutionary (Boston: Little, Brown, 1980), p. 22.Google Scholar Hong Xiuquan nickname, able to speak Hakka in Hawaii, from Moser, Leo J., The Chinese Mosaic: The Peoples and Provinces of China, (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1985), p. 247.Google Scholar Sun's self-defence from a 1923 speech to Hong Kong University students, quoted without further attribution in Schinz, Alfred, Cities in China (Berlin: Gebruder Borntraeger, 1989), p. 369.Google Scholar

^30. Bian, Tan, “Sun Zhongshan jiashi yuanliu jiqi shangdai jingji zhuangkuang xin zheng” (“New evidence on Sun Zhongshan's ancestry and his ancestors' economic status”), Xueshu yanjiu (Literary Research), Vol. 3 (1963), pp. 32–38.Google Scholar

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^32. Ibid. pp. 25–31. Photograph faces p. 25. A lavish 1981 mainland photographic biography of Sun reprints the portrait, but cuts the picture off at the knees.

^33. Skinner, G. William, “Cities and the hierarchy of local systems”Google Scholar and “Regional urbanization in nineteenth century China,” in Skinner, G. William (ed.), The City in Late Imperial China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1977), pp. 212, 216.Google Scholar

^34. The South-east Coast Subsystem includes the Hakka homeland including north-east Guangdong and western Fujian. The Lingnan Mountain Subsystem has Hakkas scattered throughout Guangdong. But they are especially concentrated in the northern uplands of the Lingnan Mountains and the rockier coastal areas, including Hong Kong. The Middle Yangze Subsystem includes Hakkas who live on the Fujian-Jiangxi border. In the Upper Yangtze Subsystem, Hakka settlements are south-east of Chongqing. In the North-west Subsystem, Hakka settlements ring Chengdu, and are scattered about the mountains on the Shaanxi border.

^35. Until this century, Meixian was called Jiaying (Kiaying), and Changting called Tingzhou. Hakkas are also called “newcomers” (xin ren) or “arrivals” (lai ren). They are often called “Cantonese,” especially in Taiwan, Hunan and Sichuan. Hakka dialect is also called “dirt Cantonese” (tu Guangdonghua); “newcomer talk” (xin min hua); or “rough border talk” (ma jie hua) (see Rongchang, Cui, “Sichuan fangyan de biandiao xianxiang” (“The making of the Sichuan dialects”), Fangyan (Chinese Dialects), Vol. 1 (1985), p. 10).Google Scholar Japanese imperialists referred to Hakkas as “Cantonese” even when writing ethnography or developing a Hakka writing system using kana. English readers may be further perplexed by references to the Hoklos, who are not Hakka at all but people of southern Fujian ancestry living in Guangdong. (Hoklo is the Cantonese pronunciation of Fu lao, from “Fujian” and lao “fellow”; Blake, , Ethnic Groups, p. 72.)Google Scholar

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^64. Mandarin is the native language of 70% of mainlanders and some 10% of Taiwan. Some 9% of mainlanders speak the Wu dialect of Shanghai and Zhejiang. About 5% speak Yue, called Cantonese in English, and 5% speak Xiang, native to most of Hunan. Mao Zedong retained his almost impenetrable Xiang accent to the end of his days. About 3% speak Gan, mostly within Jiangxi Province. The Min dialects of Fujian are native to 2%. Northern Min is not mutually intelligible with the Southern Min spoken around Xiamen (Amoy) and by 80% of Taiwan. See Norman, , Chinese, pp. 119–228Google Scholar; Ramsey, S. Robert, The Languages of China (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987), pp. 87–111Google Scholar; Great Chinese Encyclopedia: Languages and Writing Systems, pp. 89–93, 112–15, 237–242, 292–97, 408–411, 421–23, 500–504.Google Scholar

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^66. Teenagers from Rongchang, Cui, “Making,” p. 12Google Scholar; De, Zhu, “Remembering my mother,” p. 115.Google Scholar

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^69. Smedley, , Great Road, pp. 301–302.Google Scholar

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^73. Galbiati, , P'eng P'ai, p. 177.Google Scholar

^74. Dirlik, Arif, personal communication, 18 09 1990Google Scholar, refers to Ming Chan's work on labour history.

^75. Liling County also has Gan speakers, but fails outside the Xiang dialect area. Other Hakka-Gan counties in Hunan include Pingjiang, You, Liuyang, Chaling, Guidong and Rucheng Counties (Great Chinese Encyclopedia: Languages and Writing Systems, pp. 92, 238, 421).Google Scholar Anyuan, the mining centre in north-west Jiangxi, should not be confused with the other Anyuan, a county seat on the Guangdong border near Xunwu.

^76. Shaffer, Lynda, Mao and the Workers: The Hunan Labor Movement, 1920–1923 (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1982).Google Scholar

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^78. Liuyang, Liling, Pingjiang, Leiyang and Chen Counties. Tse-tung, Mao, “Investigation of the Peasant Movement in Hunan,” Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung, Vol. 1 (Peking: Foreign Languages Press, [1927] 1967), p. 25.Google Scholar

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^80. Galbiati, , P'eng P'ai, pp. 123–24, 126, 180–83.Google Scholar

^81. Ibid. p. 210; Harrison, , Long March, p. 142.Google Scholar

^82. Capitals included: Changting (Tingzhou) for Fujian; Ningdu for Jiangxi; Jianning for Fujian-Jiangxi; Huichang for Guangdong-Jiangxi; Hengfeng for north-eastern Jiangxi; Lianhua for western Jiangxi; and Hongxin for the Hunan-Jiangxi border.

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^109. Ibid. p. 106. The Western Hunan troops under He Long were not Hakka.

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