1. For an extended discussion of peasants asserting their power by “working the system” seeScott, James, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Resistance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985)Google Scholar;

2. Jeffrey Isaac uses the term “chronic negotiation” to describe the nature of reciprocity entailed in all relations of power and dominance. SeePower and Marxist Theory: A Realist View (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1987), p. 89Google Scholar;

3. For a discussion of the elusiveness of the boundary between state and society generally seeMitchell, Timothy, “The limits of the state: Beyond statist approaches and their critics,” American Political Science Review, No. 85 (03 1991), pp. 77–96Google Scholar;

4. In 1987 Wenzhou claimed over 60,000 Wenzhou natives living abroad.Enzhen, Yuan, Wenzhou moshi yu fuyu zhilu (The Wenzhou Model and the Road to Affluence) (Shanghai: Shanghai shehui kexueyuan chubanshe, 1987), p. 9Google Scholar;

5. Y. Ding, “Some suggestions on the problem of the standardization of Chinese language,” in Xiandai hanyu guifan wenti xuexu huiyi wenjian huibian (Selected Documents from Discussion Meetings on Contemporary Chinese Problems of Corruption), cited inLiu, Alan P. I., “The politics of corruption in the People's Republic of China,” American Political Science Review, No. 77 (1983), p. 614Google Scholar;

6. For historical background on Wenzhou and Zhejiang Province seeRankin, Mary, Elite Activism and Political Transformation in China: Zhejiang Province 1865–1911 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1986)Google Scholar;

7. Liu, Ya-Ling, “The private economy and local politics in Wenzhou,” The China Quarterly, No. 130 (06 1992), pp. 293–316Google Scholar;

8. For accounts of this episode see Zhejiang hezuohua shiliao (Materials on Cooperativization History in Zhejiang), No. 3(11 October 1988), entire issue;Jun, Zhang, “Listening to frightening thunder from an obscure place - a chronology of China's rural reform,” Zixue (Self Study), No. 2 (1988), pp. 10–17Google Scholar;

9. Forster, Keith, Rebellion and Factionalism in a Chinese Province: Zhejiang, 1966–1976 (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1990), pp. 48–49Google Scholar; 75–78.

10. San-sung, Tien and Yi-ou, Chao, “An ultra right line-a visit to Wenzhou, Chekiang Province,” Beijing Review, 23 09 1977, pp. 27–29Google Scholar;

11. This figure does not account for the active underground economy at this time, but it does indicate the failure of the public economy to grow and meet local needs.Jinlong, Ma, “An introduction to Wenzhou's economic situation,” in Youguan wenzhou jingji de bufen zhongyao jianghua (Some Important Talks Regarding Wenzhou's Economy), a special issue of Jiaoyan ziliao {Teaching and Research Materials), 1 07 1986Google Scholar;

12. Figure for Wenzhou is fromEnzhen, Yuan, The Wenzhou Model, p. 10Google Scholar and it is the figure found in most sources. But Beijing Review (15–22 June 1992), p. 7 gives the average farming income as 113 yuan; forZhejiang, , Zhejiang Province economic research centre, Zhejiang shengqing 1949–1984 (Zhejiang Provincial Conditions) (Hangzhou: Zhejiang renmin chubanshe, 1986), pp. 65–66Google Scholar;

13. Binghui, Yu, “Politics, economy, society: a reconsideration of the Wenzhou model,” Nongcun jingji yu shehui (Rural Economics and Society), No. 2 (1988. pp. 13–14Google Scholar;

14. See then-Premier Hua Guofeng's report to the 15th National People's Congress in February 1978 for the initial re-endorsement of the private sector. Beijing Review, No. 10(1978), p. 22.

15. Jiajin, Huang, “The problem of Wenzhou's hang-on household management,” Zhejiang xuekan (Zhejiang Studies), No. 5 (1986), p. 16Google Scholar;

16. Published inBang, Liu (ed.), Xuexi zhongyang diyihao wenjian, zhengce jueda yibaiti (Study Central Document Number 1, Answers to 100 Questions on Policy) (Beijing: Xinhua chubanshe, 1985), p. 34Google Scholar;

17. The name itself was a source of debate. Some preferred the term siying (privately run) to siren (private person) because it finessed the issue of ownership and property relations. The former became the dominant usage by 1988.

18. Da, Yi, “Chinese private enterprise development on the legal track,” Liaowang zhoukan (Outlook Weekly), No. 25 (1988), p. 10Google Scholar;

19. On stockholding enterprises see Wenzhou gaige yu shiyan ( Wenzhou Reform and Experiment), No. 8 (25 December 1988), entire issue.

20. Zhejiang private economy development and leadership research group, “An analysis of Wenzhou's private economy,” unpublished manuscript, 1989, p. 5Google Scholar;

21. Zhejiang private economy research group, “A special report regarding the internal relations in the private economy,” unpublished manuscript, 05 1990, p. 5Google Scholar;

22. Jianwen, Yang, Yifeng, Zhou, Li, Zhen, “The Wenzhou model and China's rural economic takeoff,” Shehui kexue (Social Science) (Shanghai), No. 5 (1986), p. 33Google Scholar;

23. This term (zifa) is used to describe economic activity which occurs without legal sanction. When such activity comes under attack it is referred to as “underground,” “black,” “illegal,” or “speculation and profiteering.”

24. Xiaotong, Fei, “Small commodities large market,” Zhejiang xue (Zhejiang Studies), No. 3 (1986), pp. 4–13Google Scholar;Hongye, Xu, “In a small town ‘East Asia's number one’”, Zhongguo jingji tizhi gaige (Economic Structural Reform in China), No. 7 (1992), p. 26Google Scholar;

25. On Wenzhou's markets seeWenzhou, Communist Party Rural Work Committee, Wenzhou nongcun shangpin jingji fazhan de xin luzi (Wenzhou's New Road of Rural Commodity Economy Development) (07 1984)Google Scholar andZili, Lin, “Research report on Wenzhou's commodity economy,” Jingji yanjiu ziliao (Economic Research Materials), No. 1 (01 1987)Google Scholar;

26. Wenzhou ribao (WZRB) (Wenzhou Daily), 20 January 1985 and“Money house boss,” in Bai, Lin et al. (eds.), Wenzhou de nongmin qiyejia (Wenzhou's Peasant Entrepreneurs) (Nanning: Guangxi renmin chubanshe, 1987), pp. 61–71Google Scholar;

27. Interview no. 47, Wenzhou, April 1989.

28. Interview no. 29, Wenzhou, March 1989.

29. WZRB, 21 July 1984.

30. Chaocai, Dong, “Trends and reform, in Yanjiu ziliao (Research Materials), 28 07 1986, p. 45Google Scholar;

31. Asian Wall Street Journal, 17 August 1991, p. 8; Beijing Review, No. 35 (15–21 June 1992), p. 9.

32. In 1988, for example, when shareholding firms were included, the private sector reportedly accounted for 59% of total industrial output value. Zhejiang private enterprise economy research group, “A special report,” p. 8.

33. Wenzhou statistical bureau, Wenzhou tongjinianjian, 1986 (WenzhouStatistical Yearbook, 1986) (Wenzhou, 1986), p. 14Google Scholar;

34. Zhejiang Party policy research office, Zhejiang jingji nianjian, 1986 (Zhejiang Economic Yearbook, 1986) (Hangzhou: Zhejiang renmin chubanshe, 1988), p. 95Google Scholar;

35. Xinghong, Zhou, “A few questions about Wenzhou's private enterprise development from the standpoint of the theory of the primary stage of socialism,” Wenzhou luntan (Wenzhou Forum), No. 6 (1987), p. 15Google Scholar;

36. Enzhen, Yuan, The Wenzhou Model, p. 254Google Scholar; These figures indicate that average rural incomes, while rising, were not inordinately high by national standards. This reflects the fact that households in certain mountainous regions remain poor. In addition they undoubtedly underestimate real incomes because much of the economic activity was still illegal and people were concerned to hide their wealth both to avoid the notice of the state and the envy of their neighbours. They nevertheless do indicate an overall increase in personal wealth.

37. Bramall, Chris, “The Wenzhou ‘miracle’: an assessment,” in Nolan, Peter and Fureng, Dong (eds.), Market Forces in China: Competition and Small Business-The Wenzhou Debate (London & New Jersey: Zed Books, 1990), p. 64Google Scholar;

38. Xianghong, Zhou, “A few questions,” p. 14Google Scholar;

39. One 1989 report claimed that from 1985 to 1988 there had been 8,820 reported cases of tax resistance with 7,420 tax cadres hit or beaten up and 13 killed, 26 disabled and nearly 700 severely injured.Zuomin, Lu, “The big perspective on the tax resistance phenomenon,” Zhongguo qingnian bao (China Youth News), 5 09 1989, p. 4Google Scholar;

40. One successful entrepreneur told me that he refused to have his photograph in the newspaper for fear of a backlash of envy against him. Interview no. 40, Wenzhou, April 1989.

41. Hongzhuan, Xu and Huijun, Tai, “A survey and analysis of Wenzhou's private enterprise labour system.” Yanhai jingji (Coastal Economy), No. 4 (1991), p. 14Google Scholar;

42. Zhejiang private economy research small group, “A special report,” p. 5Google Scholar; Gaps in incomes were reported to be much higher in Hebei and Guangdong.

43. Zheijiang private enterprise economy research group, “Ten proposals regarding the development of our province's private enterprise economy,” unpublished manu-script, May 1990, p. 4Google Scholar;

44. Personal observations and conversions in Qiaotou, April 1989.

45. Enzhen, Yuan, The Wenzhou Model, p. 133Google Scholar; See also reports in China Daily, 20 February 1989 andYan, Gong, “Document acknowledges four million child labourers nation-wide,” Chengming (Contending) (01 1992), p. 15Google Scholar;

46. Interview no. 41, Wenzhou, March 1989.

47. Interviews no. 29, 36, 41, Wenzhou, March 1989.

48. Interviews no. 29, 36, 41, Wenzhou, March 1989.

49. Wenzhou agricultural commission, Wenzhou nongcun shangpin jingji fazhan de xinluzi (A New Road for Wenzhou's Rural Commodity Economy), a series of internal reports (July 1984).

50. Renmin ribao (RMRB) (People's Daily), 8 December 1983; Shijie jingji daobao (World Economic Herald), 30 January 1983, p. 6 and 13 February 1984, p. 8.

51. Shijie jingji daobao, 13 February 1984, p. 8.

52. RMRB, 27 November 1986; WZRB, 3 September 1985.

53. On Du's relationship with Zhao seeShambaugh, David, The Making of a Premier: Zhao Ziyang's Provincial Career (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1984), pp. 2–3Google Scholar;

54. WZRB, 25 March 1984 andWenzhou Prefectural Party School library and materials office (ed.), “Excerpts from the speeches of Comrades Wan Li and Du Rensheng on Wenzhou's work,” Jiaoyan ziliao, No. 40 (2 12 1986)Google Scholar;

55. Jiefang ribao (Liberation Daily), 12 May 1985.

56. Fang, Wang, “An investigation of Wenzhou's rural development situation,” Hongqi (Red Flag), No. 3 (1986), pp. 16–19Google Scholar;

57. WZRB, 3 December 1985.

58. SeeJianwen, Yang et al. , “The Wenzhou model,” pp. 34–35Google Scholar;Ping, Song, “The State Council and State Planning Commission chief's speech on viewing Wenzhou,” Jiaoyan ziliao, 2 12 1986, p. 17Google Scholar;Rongfei, He, “The basic experience offered by Wenzhou's economic pattern,” Wenzhou luntan, No. 5 (02 1987)Google Scholar;

59. See for example,Yunhe, Li, “A discussion regarding the leadership position of publicly-owned means of production,” Wenzhou luntan, No. 6 (1988), p. 5Google Scholar;Yuansong, Ouyang, “How should we understand the Wenzhou economic pattern,” Zhejiang xuekan, No. 5 (1988), p. 34Google Scholar;Xiang, Wu, “Comrade Wu Xiang's talk during the dialogue with theoretical and practical workers,” Wenzhou luntan, No. 4 (1987), p. 5Google Scholar;

60. Lin Zili, “Research report.”

61. Xiangui, Jin, “A discussion of the 'status' of Wenzhou's commodity economy,” Wenzhou luntan, No. 5 (1987), pp. 48–49Google Scholar; see alsoYongchang, Wang, “Thoughts concerning several problems with Wenzhou's rural economic and social development,” Wenzhou luntan, No. 3 (1987), pp. 8–12Google Scholar;

62. Ibid. p. 47.

63. For a sympathetic account of Yuan's career see“Writing history in the midst of practice,” in Bai, Lin (ed.), Wenzhou de ganbu (Wenzhou's Cadres) (Guangxi: Renmin chubanshe, 1987), pp. 49–60Google Scholar;

64. His return to provincial level could be seen as a promotion but he was also removed from his position in the provincial standing committee and given a post in the far less influential judiciary. This had less immediate power and less potential upward mobility. One provincial level cadre suggested that he was removed because he was too aggressive as an advocate of Wenzhou. Interviews suggest that he was not always a diplomatic politician and may have offended a number of people within the province.

65. Interviews no. 29, 41, 43, Wenzhou, March and April 1989.

66. Chen Yonggui is the most obvious example. As a county leader involved in the promotion of the Dazhai model he gained a position on the Politburo in the 1970s.

67. “Zhao Ziyang discusses rural private companies and wage labour problems,” in Anhui Provincial Party Propaganda Bureau's Xuanchuan gongzuo (Propaganda Work), No. 16(1986).

68. “Comrade Hu Yaobang discusses the rural private company and wage labour problems,” in Xuanchuan gongzuo, No. 19 (1986). In the published version the recommendation of Wenzhou's as the first experimental point appears as part of Hu's speech. Knowledgeable individuals working in Wenzhou, however, maintain that this is a misprint and the recommendation is Zhao's. Since Hu had never visited Wenzhou, and because of Zhao's long and close association with Du Runsheng, Zhao is more likely.

69. WZRB, 13 November 1986.

70. Interview no. 22, Hangzhou, May 1989; the expression used was ”fa piqi”; also seeTian, Sha, “Beginning the discussion with Wenzhou,” Jiushi niandai (The Nineties) (05 1987), p. 57Google Scholar;

71. RMRB, 2 December 1986.

72. RMRB, 9 September 1987; see alsoLijun, Lu (ed.), Zhongguo nongcun quyujingji moshi bijiao yanjiu (Comparative Research on China's Rural Regional Economic Models) (Jinan: Shandong renmin chubanshe, 1989)Google Scholar;

73. These regulations are published in Wenzhou shiyanqu youguan tiaolie huibian (Handbook of Wenzhou Experimental Zone Regulations) ( Wenzhou, : Zhongyang wenzhou shiwei bangongshi, 11 1987)Google Scholar;

74. “Temporary methods for Wenzhou prefecture private enterprise management,” article 2, in ibid. p. 10.

75. Interview no. 28, Wenzhou, March 1989.

76. Local cadres in Wenzhou stated that the Wenzhou regulations were used as a model for the national law and that local cadres were consulted. Interviews no. 29 and 43, Wenzhou, March 1989.

77. On the insularity of village China and the strength of localism in Maoist China, seeShue, Vivienne, “Peasant localism and the Chinese state,” in The Reach of the State: Sketches in the Chinese Body Politic (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988), p. 33–71Google Scholar;

78. This Confucian term refers to the need for names (i.e. concepts) to reflect their correct nature and function in society, in accordance with the principles of the universe.

79. This term begins to appear in the local newspaper in early 1983, see Zhenan ribao (South Zhejiang Daily), 29 March 1983 for the first headline using it; see alsoShenliang, Lu, “Development of people-run industry gives Wenzhou's town and country-side increased vitality,” in Wenzhou prefectural party committee policy research office, Wenzhou nongcong shangpin jingji xingeju (The New Pattern of the Wenzhou Rural Commodity Economy) (n.p., 12 1985)Google Scholar;

80. See reports in Shijie jingji daobao, 30 January and 13 February 1984. These expenditures were obvious to any visitor.

81. See for example letters to the editor, Zhenan ribao, 5 and 8 March 1983.

82. Siu, Helen, “Recycling rituals: politics and popular culture in contemporary rural China,” in Link, Perry, Madsen, Richard and Pickowicz, Paul (eds.), Unofficial China: Popular Culture and Thought in the People's Republic (Boulder. CO: Westview Press, 1989), pp. 121–137Google Scholar;

83. Private conversation with two management cadres in Wenzhou's largest collective factory, April 1989.

84. The face of private enterprise,” Wenzhou tansuo (Wenzhou Explorations), No. 2 (1989), p. 29.

85. For petty capitalism as a counter-hegemony to traditional Confucian orthodoxy see Gates, Hill, “Money for the gods,” Modern China, Vol. 13, No. 3 (07 1987), pp. 259–277CrossRefGoogle Scholar;

86. Oi, Jean, “Private and local state entrepreneurship: The Shandong case,” paper presented at the 44th Annual Meeting of the Association of Asian Studies, 2–504, 1992, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar

87. SeeOi, Jean C. “The fate of the collective after the commune,” in Davis, Deborah and Vogel, Ezra (eds.), Chinese Society on the Eve of Tiananmen: The Impact of Reform (Cambridge, MA: The Council on East Asian Studies/Harvard University, 1990), pp. 33–36Google Scholar;

88. Schmitter, Philippe, “Still a century of corporatism?” in Pike, Federick B. and Stritch, Thomas (eds.), The New Corporatism (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1974), p. 93Google Scholar;

89. Walder, Andrew, Communist Neo-Traditionalism: Work and Authority in Chinese Industry (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), p. 48Google Scholar;

90. Hernes, Gudmund and Selvik, Arne, “Local corporatism,” in Berger, Suzanne (ed.), Organizing Interests in Western Europe, Pluralism, Corporatism, and the Transformation of Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), pp. 103–122Google Scholar;

91. Information on the ILA was gathered from interviews: no. 2, November 1988; no. 7, December 1988; nos. 8, 10, January 1989; no. 35, March 1989; no. 45, April 1989.

92. Information on the People Run Business Association is drawn from Wenzhou gongshang (Wenzhou Industry and Commerce), 25 January 1989 and from interviews no. 39, 40, 41, March 1989.

93. Bonnin, Michel and Chevrier, Yves, “The intellectual and the state: social dynamics of intellectual autonomy during the post-Mao era,” The China Quarterly, No. 127 (09 1991), p. 57Google Scholar;

94. Originally created in the 1950s as the officially administered mass organization for the private sector operating under the auspices of the United Front, the Federation lost any real function after the “transformation to socialism” was completed. In the 1980s it was revived as part of the United Front in Deng Xiaoping's reform effort.

95. Socialism, the people's dictatorship, Party leadership, Marxism-Leninism-Mao Zedong Thought.

96. Interview no. 47, April 1989; Asian Wall Street Journal, 17 August 1992, p. 4.

97. Jingji ribao (Economics Daily), 21 October 1989, p. 2.

98. RMRB (overseas edition), 29 April 1990, p. 3.

99. Beijing Review, No. 35 (15–21 June 1992), p. 7.

100. Liu, Ya-Ling, “The private economy and local politics in Wenzhou,” p. 313Google Scholar;