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China's Secret Military Papers: ‘Continuities’ and ‘Revelations’

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 February 2009

John Wilson Lewis
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Extract

China's rulers in 1961 surveyed their shattered dreams and then, with studied self-confidence, hailed the vitality of their revolutionary “mass-line” credo. This resolute re-affirmation of standard principles had a hollow ring, however, and doubts about the “real methods of control” employed during the years of retreat and readjustment coincided with angry charges that the language of the “mass-line” disguised terror and brutality on an appalling scale. In the confusion, fact has until recently seemed entwined irretrievably with propaganda and invective, but now a unique collection of the Kung-tso T'ung-hsun (Bulletin of Activities) makes it possible to disentangle the contradictory methods of control and leadership used in 1961 and to evaluate their widely varied effects in that crucial year.

Type
Chinese Military Affairs
Information
The China Quarterly , Volume 18 , June 1964 , pp. 68 - 78
Copyright
Copyright © The China Quarterly 1964

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References

1Kung-tso T'ung-hsun (Bulletin of Activities), No. 11, 03 2, 1961, p. 12.Google Scholar

2Bulletin, No. 1, 01 1, 1961, p. 13.Google Scholar

3Bulletin, No. 2, 01 3, 1961, p. 3.Google Scholar

4Bulletin, No. 29, 08 1, 1961Google Scholar, p. 3. Among the political qualities enumerated are “political consciousness, bravery and sacrifice.” By inference, these qualities are placed in opposition to the “erroneous feeling” that “modern war will destroy mankind”; Bulletin, No. 3, January 7, 1961, p. 14.Google Scholar

5 See, for example, Bulletin, No. 1, 01 1, 1961, pp. 7–11Google Scholar, and Bulletin, No. 16, 04 10, 1961Google Scholar, p. 13. The only other Chinese leader to receive flattery on the same level as Mao is Liu Shao-ch'i. See People's Daily, 09 13, 1963.Google Scholar

6 For a careful treatment of the Military Affairs Committee in the light of the Bulletin, see Powell, Ralph L., Politico-Military Relationships in Communist China (Washington: U.S. Department of State, unclassified, 1963), especially pp. 5–7.Google Scholar

7Bulletin, No. 3, 01 7, 1961, pp. 1–33.Google Scholar

8Bulletin, No. 19, 05 13, 1961, p. 12.Google Scholar

9Bulletin, No. 23, 06 13, 1961, pp. 1–6.Google Scholar

10 For the principal documents, see Bulletin, No. 1, 01 1, 1961, pp. 1–21, No. 3, January 7, 1961, pp. 1–33, and No. 6, January 27, 1961, pp. 12–14.Google Scholar

11 See, for example, Bulletin, No. 4, 01 11, 1961, pp. 1–20Google Scholar, and No. 15, April 5, 1961, pp. 9–15. The formal definition of liang-i san-ch'a is “recollection of class suffering and national suffering and investigation of one's standpoint, will to fight and work,” Bulletin, No. 4, 01 11, 1961, p. 11.Google Scholar

12 See Bulletin, No. 7, February 1, 1961, pp. 23–28; No. 13, 03 20, 1961, pp. 1–15; No. 14, March 29, 1961, pp. 1–2; No. 15, April 5, 1961, pp. 26–30; No. 16, April 19, 1961, p. 16; No. 18, April 30, 1961, pp. 12–23; No. 22, June 1, 1961, pp. 1–5; No. 23, June 13, 1961, pp. 16–21; and No. 24, June 18, 1961, pp. 1–18.Google Scholar

13 See Mao Tse-tung Lun Tiao-ch'a Yen-chiu (Mao Tse-tung on Investigation and Research) (Hong Kong: San-lien shu-tien, 1961).Google Scholar One of the principal documents used in this campaign was Mao's On Investigation Work, written in 1930 but never published or referred to in official lists of his works. Bulletin, No. 15, 04 5, 1961, pp. 1–8.Google Scholar

14 The “3–8” campaign refers to three phrases and eight characters (or four words) which translate as follows: “steadfast and correct political direction, painstaking and frugal working style, flexible and mobile strategy and tactics; unity, earnestness, seriousness and activeness. For typical Chinese articles on the “3–8” campaign see Survey of China Mainland Press (Hong Kong: U.S. Consulate-General): Nos. 2270 (06 2, 1960), pp. 1–6Google Scholar; 2309 (August 3, 1960), pp. 2–4; and 2472 (April 10, 1961), pp. 1–6; and Bulletin, No. 3, 01 7, 1961, pp. 13–14.Google Scholar The post-1960 “3–8” is only vaguely related to Mao's “3–8” military guidelines laid down from 1928 to 1947 and formalised in 1947 as the “Three Main Rules of Discipline and Eight Points for Attention.” See Mao, Tse-tung, Selected Works (Peking: Foreign Languages Press, 1961), IV, pp. 155–156. Other campaigns discussed in the Bulletin include: a campaign for frugality and economy; a movement to encourage the use of food substitutes; a movement against too many meetings, reports, documents, organisations and slogans; and a movement to foster high quality, technical skills.Google Scholar

15 The Bulletin links P'eng, Huang K'o-ch'eng and Hung Hsueh-chih, but refers to them as “comrades.” The military documents specifically accuse the trio of “representing the military line of the bourgeoisie” and “going counter to Chairman Mao's basic principles on building the military” while fostering “dogmatism, the purely military viewpoint and warlordism,” Bulletin, No. 3, January 7, 1961, p. 3; and No. 24, June 18, 1961, p. 1.Google Scholar

16Bulletin, No. 26, 07 13, 1961, pp. 2–3.Google Scholar

17 Ibid., pp. 3–4.

18 For the other major documents on the Military Affairs Committee meetings held to prepare the ordinances and regulations, see Bulletin, No. 12, 03 10, 1961, pp. 1–8Google Scholar; and No. 29, August 1, 1961, pp. 1–11. For a Liberation Army notice on the writing of battle histories which will relate both to reminiscences and the ordinance project, see Bulletin, No. 14, 03 29, 1961, p. 7.Google Scholar

19Bulletin, No. 13, 03 20, 1961, p. 24.Google Scholar

20 High-level communications are related to general military communications and military security in the Bulletin. On military communications work, see Bulletin, No. 20, 05 22, 1961, pp. 1–24.Google Scholar For major documents on security procedures, see Bulletin, No. 8, 02 6, 1961, pp. 20–31, which contains stories of men punished for showing secret papers to their mistresses or for allegedly plotting to turn classified data over to the U.S. Consulate-General in Hong Kong.Google Scholar

21 For examples, see Bulletin, No. 6, 01 27, 1961, pp. 1–11; and No. 16, April 19, 1961, pp. 13–16.Google Scholar

22Bulletin, No. 8, 02 6, 1961, p. 14; and No. 26, July 13, 1961, p. 2.Google Scholar

23Bulletin, No. 15, 04 5, 1961, pp. 26–30.Google Scholar

24Bulletin, No. 5, 01 17, 1961, pp. 15–17.Google Scholar

25Bulletin, No. 7, 02 1, 1961, pp. 1–12. For a sample article on cadre special privileges see No. 6, January 27, 1961, pp. 18–21.Google Scholar

26Bulletin, No. 6, 01 27, 1961, pp. 15–17. Other important materials on the cadres are found in No. 11, March 2, 1961, pp. 24–33; and No. 28, July 29, 1961, pp. 9–18.Google Scholar

27 Powell, op. cit.Google Scholar

28 For the extensive documentation on training and readiness problems, see these articles in Bulletin, No. 2, 01 3, 1961, pp. 22–32; No. 5, January 17, 1961, pp. 1–4; No. 8, February 6, 1961, pp. 1–10; No. 10, February 20, 1961, pp. 19–27; No. 11, March 2, 1961, pp. 1–18; No. 12, March 10, 1961, pp. 16–24; No. 14, March 29, 1961, pp. 23–26; No. 25, June 28, 1961, pp. 1–11; and No. 27, July 25, 1961, pp. 1–27.Google Scholar

29 For a sample on the handling of letters and visits with family members in “disaster areas” see Bulletin, No. 1, 01 1, 1961, pp. 16–21; No. 6, January 27, 1961, pp. 12–14; No. 7, February 1, 1961, pp. 29–32; No. 17, April 25, 1961, pp. 14–18; and No. 23, June 13, 1961, pp. 22–25.Google Scholar

30Bulletin, No. 14, 03 29, 1961, pp. 27–29; No. 26, July 13, 1961, pp. 10–16.Google Scholar

31 For a sample of the articles on health problems in the army and the use of food substitutes, see Bulletin, No. 6, 01 27, 1961, pp. 22–27; No. 10, February 20, 1961, pp. 28–32; No. 11, March 2, 1961, pp. 19–23; No. 13, March 20, 1961, pp. 16–20; No. 22, June 1, 1961, p. 17; No. 26, July 13, 1961, p. 17; and No. 29, August 1, 1961, pp. 12–15.Google Scholar

32 The principal articles on the militia are in Bulletin, No. 4, 01 11, 1961, pp. 21–27; No. 14, March 29, 1961, pp. 16–17; and No. 21, May 26, 1961, pp. 1–16.Google Scholar

33Bulletin, No. 5, 01 17, 1961, p. 12.Google Scholar

34 Ibid. p. 8.

35Bulletin, No. 4, 01 11, 1961, pp. 21–27.Google Scholar

36Bulletin, No. 14, 03 29, 1961, pp. 2–7.Google Scholar

37 See especially Bulletin, No. 1, 01 1, 1961, pp. 29–32; and No. 5, January 17, 1961, pp. 5–15.Google Scholar

38 In addition to the sources cited in note 37, see Bulletin, No. 4, 01 11, 1961, pp. 21–27; and No. 21, May 26, 1961, pp. 9–16.Google Scholar

39 See Lewis, John W., “The Leadership Doctrine of the Chinese Communist Party: The Lesson of the People's Commune,” Asian Survey, III, No. 10 (10 1963), pp. 457–464.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

40 See Bulletin, No. 15, 04 5, 1961, pp. 1–8; No. 17, April 25, 1961, pp. 1–7; No. 18, April 30, 1961, pp. 1–4; No. 19, May 13, 1961, pp. 1–14.Google Scholar

41 See Bulletin, No. 4, 01 11, 1961, pp. 30–33; No. 6, January 27, 1961, pp. 30–32; No. 13, March 20, 1961, pp. 30–33; No. 14, March 29, 1961, pp. 30–32; No. 17, April 25, 1961, pp. 19–25; No. 22, June 1, 1961, pp. 13–16; and No. 29, August 1, 1961, pp. 16–17.Google Scholar

42Bulletin, No. 17, 04 25, 1961, pp. 19–25.Google Scholar

43Bulletin, No. 8, 02 6, 1961, pp. 11–19.Google Scholar

44People's Daily, 06 17, 1963.Google Scholar