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The Old Mittelstand 1890–1939: How “Backward” Were the Artisans?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 December 2008

Adelheid von Saldern
Affiliation:
University of HanoverHanover

Extract

In 1892, an artisan from Cologne stated that “the reintroduction of the Befähigungsnachweis (proof of qualification) was always the most important issue—a vital question for the representatives of the artisans.”

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Conference Group for Central European History of the American Historical Association 1992

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References

I thank Gisela Johnson for active help in translating parts of this article. Sections of this article were translated by Ursula Marcum.

1. The Befähigungsnachweis was used to regulate and direct job access as well as job training. There are two forms: the minor Befähigungsnachweis entitled the bearer to train apprentices; the major one regulated access to crafts so that only masters could open a shop.

2. Conference proceedings: Session of the Deutschen Innungs-und Allgemeinen Handwerkertages,14–17 February 1892in Berlin, 19.Google Scholar

3. Craft corporatism is defined as a close organizational association of artisans as a social group. The association furthers the economic and social strengthening as well as the legitimization of the occupational group and gives it an ideological basis which is expressed through various symbolical actions and rituals.

4. Perner, Detlef, Mitbestimmung im Handwerk? Die politische und soziale Funktion der Handwerkskammern im Geflecht der Unternehmerorganisationen (Cologne, 1983), 74.Google Scholar

5. Soziale Praxis 43, no. 3 (1934): 75.

6. Perner, Mitbestimmung, 249.

7. See the research project of the Zentrum für interdisziplinäre Forschung (ZIF) in Bielefeld and the work by Kocka, Jürgen, Bürgertum im 19. Jahrhundert. Deutschland im europäischen Vergleich, 3 vols. (Munich, 1988).Google Scholar

8. In contrast to the Old Mittelstand, the New Mittelstand was made up mainly of salaried people. For the history of the Old Mittelstand see Haupt, Heinz-Gerhard, “Deutschland und Frankreich am Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts,” in Kocka, Bürgertum, 2: 252.Google Scholar See also Stearns, Peter N., “The Middle Class: Toward a Precise Definition,” in Comparative Studies in Society and History 21 (1979).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

9. For the term “Kleinbürger” and the corresponding ideology see Franke, Berthold, Begriff, Ideologie, Politik (Frankfurt and New York, 1988).Google Scholar

10. See Bourdieu, Pierre, Die feinen Unterschiede (Frankfurt am Main, 1982), trans.;Google Scholar compare also “Stände und Klassen” in Weber, Max, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft, 5th ed. (Tübingen, 1972), 177–81.Google Scholar

11. See the pioneering work of Griessinger, Andreas, Das symbolische Kapital der Ehre. Streikbewegung und kollektives Bewusstsein deutscher Handwerksgesellen im 18. Jahrhundert (Frankfurt am Main, Verlag, 1981), esp. 426–35.Google Scholar

12. Blumin, Stuart M., “The Hypothesis of Middle-Class Formation in Nineteenth–Century America: A Critique and Some Proposals,” in The American Historical Review 90, no. 2 (04 1985): 312.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

13. An important and as yet little used source are the interviews with artisans conducted by the Enquete-Ausschuss during the twenties and published in 1931 by the Ausschuss zur Untersuchung der Erzeugungs-und Absatzbedingungen der deutschen Wirtschaft.

14. Franke, Begriff.

15. Winkler, Heinrich August, “From Social Protectionism to National Socialism: The German Small Business Movement in Comparative Perspective,” in Journal of Modern History 48, no. 1 (03 1976).CrossRefGoogle Scholar See also his reprinted articles in Winkler, Heinrich August, Zwischen Marx und Monopolen. Der deutsche Mittelstand vom Kaiserreich zur Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Frankfurt, 1991).Google Scholar

16. Winkler, Heinrich August, “Stabilisierung durch Schrumpfung: Der gewerbliche Mittelstand in der Bundesrepublik,” in Conze, Werner and Lepsius, M. Rainer, eds., Sozialgeschichte der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Stuttgart, 1985), 208.Google Scholar

17. The most important study on this type of continuity is Hartwich, Hans-Hermann, Sozialstaatspostulat und gesellschaftlicher Status quo (Cologne, Opladen, 1970).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

18. Göttinger Tageblatt, 26 August 1988.

19. Innungen are local alliances of various craft branches. One differentiates between Innungen, made up of voluntary members, and Zwangsinnungen, which again may be either facultative or obligatory.

20. See Perner, Mitbestimmung.

21. For the traditional point of view, see Puhle, Hans-Jürgen, Politische Agrarbewegungen in kapitalistischen Gesellschaften. Deutschland, USA und Frankreich im 20. Jahrhundert, (Göttingen, 1975).Google Scholar Criticim about the allegedly preindustrial attitude of the farmers can be found in Moeller, Robert G., “Peasants and Tariffs in the Kaiserreich: How Backward were the Bauern?” in Agricultural History 55 (1981): 370.Google Scholar

22. For the Sonderweg thesis, see the various studies of the Bielefeld School. An early criticism was Blackbourn, David and Eley, Geoff, The Peculiarities of German History (Oxford, 1984);CrossRefGoogle Scholar compare also Grebing, Helga, Der “deutsche Sonderweg” in Europa 1806–1945. Eine Kritik (Stuttgart, 1986).Google Scholar For antimodernism see Volkov, Shulamit, The Rise of Popular Antimodernism in Germany. The Urban Master Artisans, 1873–1896 (Princeton, 1978).Google Scholar

23. One of the critical studies about the thesis of manipulation is Blackbourn, David, Class, Religion and Local Politics in Wilhelmine Germany. The Centre Party in Württemberg before 1914 (Wiesbaden, 1980), 128;Google Scholar see also Crossick, Geoffrey, “The Petite Bourgeoisie in Nineteenth Century Europe: Problems and Research,” in Tenfelde, Klaus, ed., Arbeiter und Arbeiterbewegung im Vergleich (Munich, 1986), 271.Google Scholar

24. See esp. Blackbourn, David, “Mittelstandspolitik im Deutschen Kaiserreich,” in Melville, Ralph et al. , eds., Deutschland und Europa in der Neuzeit (Stuttgart, 1988), 2: 555–73.Google Scholar

25. See Eley, Geoff, From Unification to Nazism. Reinterpreting the German Past (Boston, 1986), 4258.Google Scholar

26. Crossick, “Petite Bourgeoisie,” 271.

27. This point is also featured in ibid., 255.

28. Proceedings of the sessions of the Preussischen Abgeordnetenhaus, 41st session, 2 March 1897, 1262. See also Winkler, Heinrich August, “Der rükversicherte Mittelstand: Die Interessenverbände von Handwerk und Kleinhandel im Deutschen Kaisserreich,” in Rüegg, Walther and Neuloh, Otto, eds., Zur soziologischen Theorie und Analyse des 19. Jahrhunderts (Göttingen, 1971), 163–79.Google Scholar

29. See Proceedings of the sessions of 15, 16, and 17 June 1891 with delegates of the Central Committee of the Allgemeinen Handwerkerbundes in Munich, testimony of Hasshauer, Cologne. Bayerisches Hauptstaatsarchiv Munich, MWi 864. There were a lot of comparable statements, see for instance Proceedings of the sessions of the Deutschen Innungs- und Allgemeinen Handwerkertages of 14–17 February 1892 in Berlin, 1892; also compare Proceedings of the sessions of the 13th Allgemeinen bayerischen Handwerkertages and the 13th Delegiertentages des bayerischen Handwerkerbundes zu Aibling, 19, 20, 21 September 1896, Munich, no year; a good overview is Stegmann, Dirk, Die Erben Bismarcks. Parteien und Verbände in der Spätphase des wilheminischen Deutschlands (Cologne, 1970), 143–45, 249–57.Google Scholar Blackbourn calls the artisans' politics a kind of blackmail. Blackbourn, “Mittelstandspolitik,” 564.

30. Examples in Noll, Adolf, “Sozio-ökonomischer Strukturwandel des Handwerks in der zweiten Phase der Industrialisierung unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Regierungsbezirke Arnsberg und Münster” (Dissertation, University of Münster, 1971), 268–83.Google Scholar

31. See Puhle, Hans-Jürgen, Agrarische Interessenpolitik und preussischer Konservatismus im wilhelminischen Reich (1893–1914) (Hanover, 1966).Google Scholar

32. This ambiguity is also emphasized by Blackbourn, “Mittelstandspolitik,” 566. Georges stresses the sucess of the modern pressure group Allgemeiner deutscher Handwerkerbund, See Georges, Dirk, “Die Interessenpolitik des Handwerks im deutschen Kaiserreich im Vergleich,” in Hettling, Manfred et al. , eds., Was ist Gesellschaftsgeschichte? (Munich, 1991), 188–98.Google Scholar

33. Henning, Hansjoachim, “Handwerk und Industriegesellschaft. Zur sozialen Verflechtung westfälischer Handwerkermeister 1870–1914,” in Düwell, Kurt and Köllmann, Wolfgang, eds., Rheinland-Westfalen im Industriezeitalter (Wuppertal, 1984), 2: 180.Google Scholar

34. Noll, “Sozio-ökonomischer Strukturwandel,” 113. There and on the following pages can be found more exact differentiations.

35. For an attempt at a comparison, see Crossick, Geoffrey and Haupt, Heinz Gerhard, eds., Shopkeepers and Master Artisans in Nineteenth-Century Europe (London and New York, 1984).Google Scholar

36. Ibid., 114.

37. Ibid., 252.

38. Volkov, Popular Antimodernism, 302; more differentiated, 324.

39. See Letter of the Oberpräsidenten to the Prussian Minister for Commerce and Manufacture, in Niedersächsisches Hauptstaatsarchiv Hanover 122a, 33/8.

40. Cf. Blackbourn, “Mittelstandspolitik,” 566.

41. See Crossick, “Petite Bourgeoisie,” 257, 259; Haupt, Heinz-Gerhard, “Der Bremer Kleinhandel zwischen 1890 and 1914. Binnenstruktur, Einfluss and Politik,” in Beiträge zur Sozialgeschichte Bremens, vol. 4, part 1 (Bremen, no year), 34.Google Scholar

42. Henning, “Handwerk,” esp., 178, 185, 186.

43. Crossick also stressed the function of the bulwark against the labor movement; Crossick, “Petite Bourgeoisie,” 271.

44. Haupt, “Deutschland and Frankreich,” 272. We have to differentiate between southern and northern regions.

45. Eley, Unification, e.g., 264; Blackbourn, “Mittelstandspolitik,” 561; Crossick, “Petite Bourgeoisie,” 271.

46. See Düding, Dieter, “Die Kriegervereine im wilhelminischen Reich and ihr Beitrag zur Militarisierung der deutschen Gesellschaft,” in Duelffer, Jost and Holl, Karl, eds., Bereit zum Krieg. Kriegsmentalität im wilhelminischen Deutschland 1890–1914 (Göttingen, 1986), 99, esp. 104.Google Scholar

47. Eley, Geoff, Reshaping the German Right. Radical Nationalism and Political Change after Bismarck (New Haven and London, 1980), 319.Google Scholar

48. Ibid.

49. Compare still Kocka, Jürgen, Klassengesellschaft im Krieg. Deutsche Sozialgeschichte 1914–1918 (Göttingen, 1973), 9093.Google Scholar

50. Haupt, Heinz-Gerhard, ed., “Bourgeois und Volk zugleich?” Zur Geschichte des Kleinbürgertums im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert (Frankfurt/M. and New York, 1978), 31.Google Scholar See also Haupt, Heinz-Gerhard, “Mittelstand und Kleinbürgertum in der Weimarer Republik,” in Archiv für Sozialgeschichte 16 (1986).Google Scholar

51. In general, see Winkler, Heinrich August, Mittelstand, Demokratie und Nationalsozialismus. Die politische Entwicklung von Handwerk und Kleinhandel in der Weimarer Republik (Cologne and Berlin, 1972).Google Scholar

52. In “Festschrift zur Tagung des deutschen Städtetags in Hannover,” Zeitschrift für Kommunalwirtschaft (special issue) (Berlin-Friedenau 1924): 10.Google Scholar

53. Ibid., 11.

54. Ibid.

55. Ibid.

56. Ibid.

57. Ibid.

58. Ibid.

59. Cf., esp. Winkler, Mittelstand, Demokratie und Nationalsozialismus, but also the generally impressive work of Fritzsche, Peter, Rehearsals for Fascism. Populism and Political Mobilization in Germany (New York and Oxford, 1990), 232, but more differentiated, 223.Google Scholar

60. Wunderlich, Frieda, “Der Einfluss der Rationalisierung auf die Arbeitnehmer nach den Berichten der Gewerbeaufsichtsbeamten für das Jahr 1927,” in Soziale Praxis 37, no. 42 (10 1928): 998.Google Scholar

61. Geiger, Theodor, Die soziale Schichtung des deutschen Volkes (Stuttgart 1932, repr. 1987), 73.Google Scholar Many retailers belonged to this group. Ibid., 85.

62. Krohn, Klaus-Dieter and Stegmann, Dirk, “Kleingewerbe und Nationalsozialismus in einer agrarisch-mittelständischen Region. Das Beispiel Lüneburg,” in Archiv für Sozialgeschichte, (1977): 46.Google Scholar

63. Ausschuss zur Untersuchung der Erzeugungs-und Absatzbedingungen der deutschen Wirtschaft: Das deutsche Handwerk, vol. 1 (Berlin, 1930), 44.Google Scholar

64. The inflation touched especially the savings of the artisans. Cf. Winkler, Mittelstand, Demokratie und Nationalsozialismus, 28.

65. Ibid., 33.

66. Unterstell, Rembert, Mittelstand in der Weimarer Republik. Die soziale Entwicklung und politische Orientierung von Handwerk, Kleinhandel und Hausbesitz 1919–1933 (Frankfurt am Main), 33.Google Scholar

67. For voting see Kater, Michael H., The Nazi Party. A Social Profile of Members and Leaders (Cambridge, Mass., 1983), 56;Google ScholarChilders, Thomas, The Nazi Voters. The Social Foundations of Fascism in Germany, 1919–1933 (Chapel Hill and London, 1983);Google ScholarFalter, Jürgen W., Hitlers Wähler, (Munich, 1991);Google ScholarLenger, Friedrich, “Mittelstand und Nationalsozialismus? Zur politischen Orientierung von Handwerkern und Angestellten in der Endphase der Weimarer Republik,” in Archiv für Sozialgeschichte 29 (1989): 189;Google ScholarKoshar, Rudy, Social Life, Local Politics, and Nazism, Marburg, 1880–1935 (Chapel Hill and London, 1986), 226;Google Scholar it was Koshar who worked out the local political and sociocultural background of Nazism.

68. See Kettenacker, Lothar, “Hitler's Impact on the Lower Middle Class,” in Welch, David, ed., Nazi Propaganda. The Power and the Limitations (Totowa, N.J., 1988), 16.Google Scholar

69. In 1929, the artisanry could only achieve the introduction of a Handwerksrolle, a register of all workshops.

70. See “The Middle Class in Revolt” in Jones, Larry Eugene, German Liberalism and the Dissolution of the Weimar Party System 1918–1933 (Chapel Hill and London, 1988), 251–66.Google Scholar The artisanry was closely connected with the homeowners. Cf., Maier, Charles S., Recasting Bourgeois Europe (Princeton, 1975), 592;Google Scholar see also Abelshauser, Werner, “Freiheitlicher Korporatismus im Kaiserreich und in der weimarer Republik,” in Abelshauser, Werner, ed., Die Weimarer Republik als Wohlfahrtsstaat (Wiesbaden, 1987), 170.Google Scholar

71. Election appeal during the Reichstags‐election in July 1932, in Lohmann, Hartmut, “Hier war doch alles nicht so schlimm.” Der Landkreis Stade in der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus (Stade, 1991), 34.Google Scholar

72. Domurad, Frank, “The Politics of Corporatism: Hamburg Handicraft in the Late Weimar Republic 1927–1933,” in Bessel, Richard and Feuchtwanger, Edgar J., eds., Social Change and Political Development in Weimar Germany (London, 1981), 199.Google Scholar

73. Cf., Wulf, Peter, “Die Mittelschichten in der Krise der Weimarer Republik 1930–1933,” in Holl, Karl, ed., Wirtschaftskrise und liberale Demokratie. Das Ende der Weimarer Republik und die gegenwärtige Situation (Göttingen, 1978), 99100.Google Scholar

74. Childers, Nazi Voters, 211.

75. Ibid., 213.

76. Fritzsche, Rehearsals, 234; see also Koshar, Rudy, “Cult of Associations? The Lower Middle Classes in Weimar Germany,” in Koshar, Rudy, ed., Splintered Classes, Politics, and the Lower Middle Classes in Interwar Europe (New York, London 1990).Google Scholar

77. Winkler, Heinrich August, “Ein neuer Mythos vom alten Mittelstand,” Geschichte und Gesellschaft 12, no. 4 (1986): 557.Google Scholar

78. For the following paragraphs see von Saldern, Adelheid, Mittelstand im “Dritten Reich.” Handwerker—Einzelhändler—Bauern (Frankfurt and New York, 1985 [1979]), 31, 95–105, 137–46.Google Scholar

79. See also Krohn and Stegmann, “Kleingewerbe,” 75. Even in recently published articles one can find the imprecise statement that the Nazis' Mittelstandspolitik was unsuccessful. See Mommsen, Hans, “Die Auflösung des Bürgertums seit dem späten 19. Jahrhundert,” in Kocka, Jürgen, ed., Bürger und Bürgerlichkeit im 19. Jahrhundert (Göttingen, 1987), 305.Google Scholar

80. See Schweitzer, Arthur, Die Nazifizierung des Mittelstandes (Stuttgart, 1970). This concerned, for example, the question whether chambers of artisans or chambers of industry and trade were to be in charge of apprenticeship examination.Google Scholar

81. Ibid., 11.

82. Ibid., 139–46.

83. See Geiger, Theodor, Die soziale Schichtung des deutschen Volkes (Stuttgart, 1932), 73;Google ScholarZunkel, Friedrich, “Köln während der Weltwirtschaftskrise 1929–1933,” in Zeitschrift für Unternehmensgeschichte 26 (1981): 107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

84. von Saldern, Mittelstand im “Dritten Reich,” 141.

85. Jahrbuch des deutschen Handwerks (Berlin 1938/1939), 45.Google Scholar

86. Even Winkler, who normally stressed the antimodernism of the artisans and the NS system, admitted this. See Winkler, Heinrich August, “Der entbehrliche Stand. Zur Mittelstandspolitik im “Dritten Reich,” in Archiv für Sozialgeschichte 17 (1977): 36.Google Scholar

87. Schröder, Hans-Hermann, “Probleme der Rüstungswirtschaft in Hannover 1939–1945,” (University of Hanover 1982) (bound typescript), 87.Google Scholar

88. See the various studies by Winkler cited above.

89. The term “moral economy” was introduced by E. P. Thompson in order to characterize the cultural norms of workers entering the period of capitalism. Thompson, Edward P., The Making of the English Working Class (London, 1963).Google Scholar But the value of “moral economy” was not abandoned later on, although the contexts and forms changed.

90. Disappointment about the slow economic progress can be found in the so-called Stimmungsberichte; see von Saldern, Mittelstand im “Dritten Reich,” 171–73.

91. “Sichtbares und Unsichtbares im organisierten Staat,” in Frankfurter Zeitung, 8 August 1936.

92. Cf., Lohmann, “Hier war doch alles,” 170.

93. Cf., Keller, Bernhard, Das Handwerk im faschistischen Deutschland (Cologne, 1979), 132–36. See his bibliography.Google Scholar

94. von Saldern, Mittelstand im “Dritten Reich,” 43; Wolsing, Theo, Untersuchungen zur Berufsausbildung im Dritten Reich (Kastellaun, 1977), 745.Google Scholar

95. Peukert, Detlev J. K., Max Webers Diagnose der Moderne (Göttingen, 1989);Google Scholar see also Bajohr, Frank, Johe, Werner, and Lohalm, Uwe, eds., Zivilisation und Barbarei: Die widersprüchlichen Potentiale der Moderne (Hamburg, 1991).Google Scholar

96. Both Adorno and Horkheimer, however, still start from the idea of a dialectical process. Adorno, Theodor W. and Horkheimer, Max, Die Dialektik der Aufklärung (Frankfurt, 1971; first publ. 1941).Google Scholar

97. Fraenkel, Ernst, Der Doppelstaat (Frankfurt am Main, 1974).Google Scholar

98. Backes, Uwe, Jesse, Eckhard, and Zitelmann, Rainer, Die Schatten der Vergangenheit. Impulse zur Historisierung des Nationalsozialimus (Frankfurt am Main and Berlin, 1990);Google Scholar a more differentiated picture is presented in Prinz, Michael and Zitelmann, Rainer, eds., Nationalsozialismus und Modernisierung (Darmstadt, 1991).Google Scholar The scope of my article does not allow a discussion of the connection between the “Historikerstreit” and the “Historisierungsdebatte.”

99. Even the Handwerkskammern were dissolved, that is, integrated in the Gau-Wirtschaftskammern.

100. von Saldern, Mittelstandim “Dritten Reich,” 181–82.

101. Ibid., 159.

102. Fleischmann, Georg, “Bäcker in Hamburg 1933–1939. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Handwerks im “Dritten Reich,” (Ph.D. diss., University of Hamburg 1982, bound typescript), 49.Google Scholar

103. See von Saldern, Mittelstand im “Dritten Reich.”

104. See Kettenacker, “Hitler's Impact,” 12. See the excellent article by Rabinbach, Anson G., “Die Ästhetik der Produktion im Dritten Reich,” in Schnell, Ralf, ed., Literaturwissenschaft und Sozialwissenschaften (Stuttgart, 1978), 75.Google Scholar

105. Bennathan, Esra, “Die demographische und wirtschaftliche Struktur der Juden,” in Mosse, Werner E., ed., Entscheidungsjahr 1932. Zur Judenfrage in der Endphase der Weimarer Republik (Tübingen, 1965), 104, 121.Google Scholar More exact figures are not available. Cf., Genschel, Helmut, Die Verdrängung der Juden aus der Wirtschaft im Dritten Reich (Göttingen, 1966), 96, 134. Jewish department stores also played a role in anti-Semitism.Google Scholar

106. Adam, Uwe Dietrich, Judenpolitik im Dritten Reich (Düsseldorf, 1972), 85;Google Scholar for the nineteenth century see Volkov, Shulamit, The Rise of Popular Antisemitism (Princeton, 1978).Google Scholar Sarah Gordon warns of overstressing medieval anti-Semitism. Gordon, Sarah, Hitler, Germany and the “Jewish Question” (Princeton, 1983), 8285.Google Scholar

107. Grunberger, Richard, A Social History of the Third Reich (London, 1971), 173;Google Scholar Cf. also, Keller, Das Handwerk, 122–31.

108. von Winter, Thomas, Politische Orientierungen und Sozialstruktur. Ein Beispiel zur Theorie des Wählerverhaltens (Frankfurt and New York, 1987), 73;Google Scholar see also von Saldern, Adelheid, “Mittelschichten und Konservatismus in historischer und aktueller Perspektive,” in Epskamp, Heinrich et al. , eds., Die neokonservative Verheissung und ihr Preis (Cologne, 1989), 7881.Google Scholar

109. Especially the independent artisans, retailers, and farmers belong in this category.

110. Ballerstedt, Eike and Glatzer, Wolfgang, Soziologischer Almanach (Frankfurt and New York, 1979), 55.Google Scholar Haupt, “Mittelstand und Kleinbürgertum,” 234.

111. Haupt, “Mittelstand und Kleinbürgertum,” 234.

112. A law forbidding the formation of industrial cartels was passed only in 1957.

113. Steinmetz, George and Wright, Erik Olin, “The Fall and Rise of the Petty Bourgeoisie: Changing Patterns of Self-Employment in the Postwar United States,” American Journal of Sociology 94, no. 5 (03 1989): 1008.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

114. One is reminded, for example, of the so-called Schattenwirtschaft (shadow economy).