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Mega-Events, Urban Space, and Social Protest: The Olympia 2000 Bid in Reunified Berlin, 1990–1993

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 January 2020

Molly Wilkinson Johnson
Molly Wilkinson Johnson*
Affiliation:
University of Alabama in Huntsville
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Abstract

This article explores the competing visions of urban planning that influenced newly reunified Berlin's highly contested bid, undertaken between 1990 and 1993, to host the 2000 Olympic Games. The governing city parliament coalition, mainstream media, and private corporations embraced the Games as the key to Berlin's future. The Olympics would draw investors, reunify infrastructure, foster a common “Berlin” identity among newly reunited Berlin's residents, upgrade borderland spaces and eastern neighborhoods, and boost Berlin's prominence as a global city. Alternatively, numerous protesters from both East and West, proclaiming their right to provide meaningful input into the uses of urban space, staged creative protest actions highlighting the negative social, political, and environmental effects of the proposed Games on Berlin and its neighborhoods. Ultimately, supporters and opponents diverged on the matter of who had the right to determine the use of urban space: the city government and private corporations or city residents who believed they knew best what benefited their own neighborhoods. In the end, Berlin lost its bid to host the 2000 Olympic Games. Nonetheless, creative resistance efforts designed to offer democratic alternatives to growth- and investment-oriented urban planning and to protect residents’ rights to codetermine urban space, often emerging in response to planned mega-events and large development projects, persist more than two decades later, not only in Berlin but in other major metropolises around the globe.

Dieser Beitrag untersucht die widerstreitenden Visionen von Stadtplanung, die zwischen 1990 und 1993 auf die heftig umstrittene Bewerbung des eben wiedervereinigten Berlin um die Ausrichtung der Olympischen Spiele 2000 Einfluss nahmen. Die regierende Koalition im Berliner Abgeordnetenhaus, die Mainstream-Medien sowie private Unternehmen begrüßten die Spiele als Schlüssel zur Zukunft Berlins. Die Olympischen Spiele würden Investitionen anlocken, die Infrastruktur wieder zusammenführen, eine gemeinsame “Berliner” Identität unter den Einwohner*innen der eben vereinigten Stadt befördern, die Räume an der ehemaligen Grenze und die östlichen Stadtteile aufwerten und die Prominenz Berlins als globale Stadt aufbauen. Im Gegenzug veranstalteten zahlreiche Gegner*innen aus dem Osten wie dem Westen, die ihr Recht einforderten, hinsichtlich der Nutzungen des städtischen Raumes substantielle Beiträge einzubringen, kreative Protestaktionen zur Beleuchtung der negativen sozialen, politischen und ökologischen Auswirkungen der beabsichtigten Spiele auf Berlin und seine Stadtteile. Im Grunde waren Befürworter*innen und Gegner*innen uneins darüber, wem das Recht zukam, über die Nutzung des städtischen Raumes zu entscheiden: die Stadtregierung und private Unternehmen oder Einwohner*innen, die am besten zu wissen meinten, was für ihre Stadtteile von Vorteil wäre. Letztlich verlor Berlin die Bewerbung um die Olympischen Spiele 2000. Dessen ungeachtet bestehen kreative Protestbewegungen, die zur wachstums- und investitionsorientierten Stadtplanung demokratische Alternativen anbieten und die Rechte der Anwohner*innen auf Mitbestimmung über den städtischen Raum schützen wollen, oft in Reaktion auf geplante Großereignisse oder große Entwicklungsprojekte, mehr als zwei Jahrzehnte später in Berlin und in anderen Metropolen der ganzen Welt fort.

Type
Article
Information
Central European History , Volume 52 , Issue 4 , December 2019 , pp. 689 - 712
Copyright
Copyright © Central European History Society of the American Historical Association 2020

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Footnotes

The author would like to thank the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) and the University of Alabama in Huntsville for funding to support research for this article, as well as Central European History’s anonymous reviewers for excellent comments and suggestions on previous drafts.

References

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26 Papiertiger, “Olympia 2000 in Berlin” Binder, Wolfgang Steinriede, “Die Spiele als Katalysator für die Entwicklung der Region”; Horst Kramp, “Acht gute Gründe für Olympia 2000 in Berlin”; Heike Jahberg, “Die Wirtschaft lässt für Olympia die Muskeln spielen,” Olympia 2000: Sonderbeilage des Tagesspiegels, August 17, 1993.

27 Colomb, Staging the New Berlin, 89.

28 Colomb, Staging the New Berlin, 86.

29 Colomb, Staging the New Berlin, 89.

30 Ther, Philipp, Die neue Ordnung auf dem alten Kontinent: Eine Geschichte des neoliberalen Europa (Berlin: Suhrkamp, 2016), 178Google Scholar. See also Strom, Building the New Berlin, 3, 79–83.

31 Kuhn, Vom Häuserkampf zur neoliberalen Stadt, 92–93.

32 Steinriede, “Die Spiele als Katalysator für die Entwicklung der Region.”

33 Papiertiger, “Olympia 2000 in Berlin” Binder, “‘Die Olympia-Bewerbung hat sich in jedem Fall gelohnt’: TAGESSPIEGEL-Interview mit dem Senator für Stadtentwicklung,” September 19, 1993.

34 Papiertiger, “Olympia 2000 in Berlin” Binder, Wolfgang Jost, “Ernüchterung, aber kein Kater,” Olympia 2000: Sonderbeilage des Tagesspiegels, August 17, 1993, 9. On the “Barcelona model,” see Coaffee, Jon, “Urban Regeneration and Renewal,” in Olympic Cities: City Agendas, Planning and the World's Games, 1896–2016, ed. Gold, John R. and Gold, Margaret M. (London and New York: Routledge, 2008), 185–88Google Scholar; Garcia, Soledad, “Barcelona und die Olympischen Spiele,” in Festivalisierung der Stadtpolitik: Stadtentwicklung durch grosse Projekte, ed. Häussermann, Hartmut and Siebel, Walter (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1993), 251–77CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Armin Kuhn describes Barcelona's winning of the 1992 Games in 1986 as the “beginning of a neoliberalization course” in the city. See Kuhn, Vom Häuserkampf zur neoliberalen Stadt, 112–33.

35 Kramp, “Acht gute Gründe für Olympia 2000 in Berlin.” On the Olympic Games and “world city” status, see Ward, Stephen V., “Promoting the Olympic City,” in Olympic Cities: City Agendas, Planning and the World's Games, 1896–2016, eds. Gold, John R. and Gold, Margaret M. (London and New York: Routledge, 2008), 149Google Scholar.

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38 Strom, Building the New Berlin, 225. Strom argues that with the exception of the temporary coalition behind the Olympic bid, Berlin has not had an effective growth regime. See also Lehrer, “Willing the Global City,” 334.

39 Colomb, Staging the New Berlin, 96–97.

40 Colomb, Staging the New Berlin, 105. On corruption and money laundering, see Rose, Berlin, chapter 5. Maurice Roche also briefly discusses corruption in Berlin's bid, in particular efforts to bribe International Olympic Committee members. See Mega-Events and Modernity, 156, 210–11.

41 For a full list, including major corporate sponsors as well as smaller companies offering support, see Zentral- und Landesbibliothek Berlin, Spezialbereich Berlin-Studien (hereafter: ZLB-SBS), Zeitungsausschnittsarchiv, “Olympia 2000,” Olympia Berlin 2000: Eine gemeinsame Beilage der Süddeutschen Zeitung Nr. 167 und der Berliner Morgenpost, July 23, 1993, 9.

42 Berlin 2000: Das Olympia Magazin, March 1993, 8, and Berlin 2000: Das Olympia Magazin, December 1992, 27, 32.

43 Berlin 2000: Das Olympia Magazin, April 1993, 14.

44 Berlin 2000: Das Olympia Magazin, April 1993, 17.

45 Rose, Berlin, 201.

46 Rose, Berlin, 187.

47 Rose, Berlin, 199. On Olympic Games as global media events, see Roche, Mega-Events and Modernity, 159–93.

48 Papiertiger, “Olympia 2000 in Berlin” Binder, Brochure, “Olympiagelände und olympisches Dorf.”

49 Die Stadt für Olympia, 4.

50 Strom, Building the New Berlin, 3.

51 Strom, Building the New Berlin, 118–21.

52 Die Stadt für Olympia, 12–17.

53 Berlin 2000: Das Olympia-Magazin, June 1992, 3.

54 Die Stadt für Olympia, 18.

55 Berlin 2000: Das Olympia-Magazin, October 1992, 11.

56 Papiertiger, “Olympia 2000 in Berlin” Binder, Volker Hassemer, “Olympia heilt die Wunden der Stadt und macht Berlin wieder attraktiv,” Olympia 2000: Sonderbeilage des Tagesspiegels, August 17, 1993, 2.

57 Papiertiger, “Olympia 2000 in Berlin” Binder, Eberhard Diepgen, “Zur Jahrtausendwende ein Völkerfest sportlicher Einheit und Freude,” Olympia 2000: Sonderbeilage des Tagesspiegels, August 17, 1993, 1.

58 Papiertiger, “Olympia 2000 in Berlin” Binder, “Olympia-Bewerbung hat neue IDENTITÄT hervorgebracht,” interview with Eberhard Diepgen, Berliner Zeitung, September 18–19, 1993, 3.

59 Roche, Mega-Events and Modernity, 9.

60 Papiertiger, “No-Olympic City 2000 Berlin” Binder, Interim 247, July 9, 1993, and “Nach lex Olympia will der Kiez nicht leben,” Neues Deutschland, March 27, 1993, and ZLB-SBS, “Olympia Berlin 2000 GmbH: Interne Presseschau,” “Trillerpfeifen läuteten die ersten Runde ein,” Berliner Zeitung, June 17, 1993.

61 Kuhn, Vom Häuserkampf zur neoliberalen Stadt, 15; Mayer, Margit, “Social Movements in European Cities: Transitions from the 1970s to the 1990s,” in Cities in Contemporary Europe, ed. Bagnasco, Arnaldo and Galès, Patrick Le (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 140Google Scholar.

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64 AGG, C Berlin I. 1, 104, “Olympia 2000, Kommerzspiele auf Kosten der Bürger?!”

65 AGG, C Berlin I. 1, 104, “Pressedienst PDS Fraktion im Abgeordnetenhaus,” September 12, 1991.

66 Archiv Demokratischer Sozialismus (hereafter: ADS), BT/12. WP-010, “Beschluss der 3. Tagung des 3. Landesparteitages vom 25. Oktober 1992.”

67 ADS, BT/12. WP-010, “Offener Brief der AG Sport von 21.04.1993,” and “Beschluss der 5. Tagung des 3. Landesparteitages der PDS Berlin am 02.05.1993.”

68 Papiertiger, “No-Olympic City 2000 Berlin” Binder, “nolympia express.”

69 Kuhn, Vom Häuserkampf zur neoliberalen Stadt, 98. On East Berlin, see Mitchell, Peter Angus, “Socialism's Empty Promise: Housing Vacancy and Squatting in the German Democratic Republic,” in Dropping Out of Socialism: The Creation of Alternative Spheres in the Soviet Bloc, ed. Fürst, Juliane and McLellan, Josie (Lanham, MD: Lexington, 2017), 277–302Google Scholar.

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71 AGG, C Berlin I. 1, 105, “Standort-Info Nr. 1, Olympiahalle.”

72 AGG, C Berlin I. 1, 105, “Standort-Info Nr. 2, Werner Seelenbinder Halle.”

73 ZLB-SBS, Zeitungsausschnittsarchiv “Olympia 2000,” “Autobusse statt ‘Sonnenschein,’” Spandauer Volksblatt, September 18, 1991, and AGG, C Berlin I. 1, 105, “Liebe BI'ler und Mitstreiter gegen ein ‘Olympishes Dorf’ in Ruhleben,” July 10, 1992.

74 Soja, Seeking Spatial Justice, 52.

75 AGG, C Berlin I. 1, 105, “Liebe BI'ler und Mitstreiter.”

76 AGG, C Berlin I. 1, 105, “Standort-Info Nr. 3—Olympiastandort Ruhleben.”

77 AGG, C Berlin I. 1, 105, “BI Ruhleben 2000, Presseerklärung Nr. 2.”

78 AGG, C Berlin I. 1, 105, “BI Ruhleben 2000, Presseerklärung Nr. 3.”

79 AGG, C Berlin I. 1, 105, “Standort-Info Nr. 4—Olympiastandort Rummelsburger Bucht.”

80 AGG, C Berlin I. 1, 104, “Einladung zu einem Gespräch über die Gründung eines Aktionbündnisses “Olympische Spiele 2000—Berlin sagt nein,” June 3, 1991.

81 AGG, C Berlin I. 1, 104, “Offener Brief an die Vertreter des IOC,” September 13, 1991. On unfulfilled housing requests and unrenovated apartments in East Berlin in 1989, see Pugh, Architecture, Politics, and Identity in Divided Berlin, 298–300.

82 AGG, C Berlin I. 1, 105, “Standort-Info Nr. 2, Werner Seelenbinder Halle.”

83 AGG, C Berlin I. 1, 106, “Info-Blatt zum Thema olympischer Verkehr.”

84 Bernt, Matthias and Holm, Andrej, “Is It, or Is Not? The Conceptualisation of Gentrification and Displacement and Its Political Implications in the Case of Berlin-Prenzlauer Berg,” City: Analysis of Urban Trends, Culture, Theory, Policy, Action 13, nos. 2–3 (2009): 315–16CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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86 ZLB-SBS, “Olympia Berlin 2000 GmbH: Interne Presseschau,” “Die Herren der Ringe sind in Berlin: Olympia oder NOlympia?” Frankfurter Rundschau, April 17, 1993.

87 Papiertiger, “No-Olympic City 2000 Berlin” Binder, “no-olympia express,” 2, and “Olympia 2000 … so nicht mit uns in Berlin,” 2. On rising housing prices and real estate development in Barcelona, see Monclús, Francisco-Javier, “Barcelona 1992,” in Olympic Cities: City Agendas, Planning and the World's Games, 1896–2016, eds. Gold, John R. and Gold, Margaret M. (London and New York: Routledge, 2008), 285Google Scholar.

88 See information on the Spanish publication “Nos Quedamaos sin Olimpiadas” in Papiertiger, “No-Olympic City 2000 Berlin” Binder, “no-olympia express,” 4.

89 Kuhn, Vom Häuserkampf zur neoliberalen Stadt, 118.

90 AGG, C Berlin I. 1, 105, “Standort-Info Nr. 1, Olympiahalle.”

91 MacDougall, “In the Shadow of the Wall,” 171.

92 ADS, BT/12. WP-010, “Beschluss der 3. Tagung des 3. Landesparteitages vom 25. Oktober 1992.”

93 Papiertiger, “No-Olympic City 2000 Berlin” Binder, Brochure, “Sind Sie Olympia—begeistert?” Armin Kuhn notes that the urgency of preparing for the 1992 Games also led Barcelona's municipal government to bypass citizen input. See Kuhn, Vom Häuserkampf zur neoliberalen Stadt, 115.

94 Papiertiger, “No-Olympic City 2000 Berlin” Binder, Flyer, “Allgemeiner ‘fahr rad’—Korso NOlympia.”

95 Kanngieser, Anja, “The Productivity of Disruption: The Subversive Potential of Play and Desire in the Actions of Berlin and Hamburg Umsonst,” in Aesthetics and Radical Politics, ed. Grindon, Gavin (Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars, 2008), 12Google Scholar.

96 Friedrichs, Jan-Henrik, “Mapping Kreuzberg—Karten als Quelle der Bewegungsgeschichte,” WerkstattGeschichte no. 70 (2015): 92Google Scholar.

97 Friedrichs, “Mapping Kreuzberg,” 90, 101.

98 Papiertiger, “No-Olympic City 2000 Berlin” Binder, Flyer, “Olympia? Nein Danke.”

99 Berlin 2000: Das Olympia Magazin, April 1993, 18.

100 The district offices in Mitte and Prenzlauer Berg, responding to residents’ concerns, voted not to display flags, although Prenzlauer Berg soon reversed its decision amid widespread criticism.  Papiertiger, “No-Olympic City 2000 Berlin” Binder, “Berlin flaggt seit gestern freundlich gelb für Olympia,” die tageszeitung, April 15, 1992; ZLB-SBS, “Olympia Berlin 2000 GmbH: Interne Presseschau,” “Keine Olympiafahnen mehr in Prenzlauer Berg,” Der Tagesspiegel, October 16, 1992, and “Fahne runter, Fahne rauf … ,” Berliner Zeitung, October 30, 1992.

101 Some police officers protested that displaying the stickers violated police neutrality, especially because police monitored anti-Olympic demonstrations. Reflecting the city's official Olympic consensus, the police president responded that the stickers were nonpolitical advertising for the city, expected of civil servants as a show of loyalty. Papiertiger, “No-Olympic City 2000 Berlin” Binder, “Polizisten gegen Olympia Aufkleber” die tageszeitung, April 23, 1993.

102 AGG, C Berlin I. 1, 104, “Pressedienst: Aufklärung statt Aufkleber,” prepared by the BUND, the BLN, the Grüna Liga, and die Grünen/AL.

103 Colomb, Staging the New Berlin, 101.

104 Timothy Scott Brown, “The Politics of Green Knowledge in Divided Germany, 1969–1989,” Paper presented at the German Studies Association Annual Conference, Atlanta, Georgia, October 2017.

105 All are archived at AGG, C Berlin I. 1, 105.

106 AGG, C Berlin I. 1, 106, Die GRÜNEN Landesverband Berlin, “Anti-Olympische-Kampagne: Vorschläge für das weitere Vorgehen/Arbeitsplan,” November 12, 1992.

107 See AGG, C Berlin I. 1, 106, for a folder of different logos. See also ZLB-SBS, Zeitungsausschnittsarchiv, “Olympia 2000,” “Das Spiel mit dem Bärchen,” Neue Zeit, July 27, 1993.

108 On the marking of space with graffiti, wall paintings, and transparents to build identity, see Friedrichs, “Mapping Kreuzberg,” 91.

109 ZLB-SBS, Zeitungsausschnittsarchiv, “Olympia 2000,” Photograph in Neue Zeit, July 10, 1993.

110 Papiertiger, “No-Olympic City 2000 Berlin” Binder, “Anti-Olympia-Demonstration: 1000 Teilnehmer, 950 Polizisten,” newspaper not indicated but appears to be die tageszeitung.

111 Papiertiger, “No-Olympic City 2000 Berlin” Binder, “NOlympisches Feuer im Berliner Regen,” die tageszeitung, April 19, 1993.

112 On autonomists’ protest of mega-events, see Mayer, “Social Movements in European Cities,” 43.

113 Papiertiger, “No-Olympic City 2000 Berlin” Binder, Flyer, “Besetzte Häuser und Wagenburgen gegen Olympia.”

114 Papiertiger, “No-Olympic City 2000 Berlin” Binder, Flyer, “In Berlin ist der Bär los! ANTI-OLYMPIA 2000!” in Interim 235, April 8, 1993.

115 See Grauwacke, A. G., “Wie das AOK Olympia in Berlin verhinderte,” in Autonome in Bewegung: Aus den ersten 23 Jahren (Berlin, Hamburg, Göttingen: Assoziation A, 2008), 280–81Google Scholar. See also Colomb, Staging the New Berlin, 103.

116 Papiertiger, “No-Olympic City 2000 Berlin” Binder, Flyer, “In Berlin ist der Bär los! ANTI-OLYMPIA 2000!” in Interim 235, April 8, 1993.

117 Papiertiger, “No-Olympic City 2000 Berlin” Binder, “Olympia 2000, Militanz und politische Verantwortung,” Interim 230, April 29, 1993.

118 Papiertiger, “No-Olympic City 2000 Berlin” Binder, Flyer, “Volxsport.” See also Papiertiger, “No-Olympic City 2000 Berlin” Binder, “Brandanschläge gegen Olympia-Sponsoren,” die tageszeitung April 15, 1993.

119 On the film, see Papiertiger, “No-Olympic City 2000 Berlin” Binder, “Antiolympia-Satire oder Latrinenszene?” die tageszeitung, February 26, 1993. Demba was eventually cleared of charges. See Papiertiger, “No-Olympic City 2000 Berlin” Binder, “Freispruch für Abgeordnete, die tageszeitung, January 9, 1997.

120 Papiertiger, “No-Olympic City 2000 Berlin” Binder, “Olympia spaltet Grüne,” die tageszeitung, April 16, 1993.

121 ADS, BT/12. WP-010, Bl. 430r, “Beschlussvorlage für die Tagung des Landesvorstandes am 31.3.1993.”

122 Papiertiger, “No-Olympic City 2000 Berlin” Binder, “Autonome Militanz schadet den Olympiagegnern,” die tageszeitung, February 19, 1993.

123 Papiertiger, “No-Olympic City 2000 Berlin” Binder, Flyer, “Olympia und … tschüss!  Die finale Demo, 18.9.”

124 ZLB-SBS, Zeitungsausschnittsarchiv, “Olympia 2000,” “Seid glücklich und zahlt … oder?” Neues Deutschland, September 8, 1993.

125 Papiertiger, “No-Olympic City 2000 Berlin” Binder, “NOlympia im Endspurt,” die tageszeitung, September 8, 1993.

126 Papiertiger, “No-Olympic City 2000 Berlin” Binder, Flyer, Der Polizeipräsident in Berlin “Information.”

127 See autofocus videowerkstatt, “olympia und tschuess” (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y2T4Mzqtc8o&feature=youtu.be; accessed May 24, 2018).

128 Papiertiger, “No-Olympic City 2000 Berlin” Binder, “‘Auf den Mond, auf den Mond, der ist unbewohnt,’” die tageszeitung, September 20, 1993, 21.

129 Hou, Jeffrey, “(Not) your everyday public space,” in Insurgent Public Space: Guerrilla Urbanism and the Remaking of Contemporary Cities, ed. Hou, Jeffrey (New York: Routledge, 2010), 15–16CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

130 Papiertiger, “No-Olympic City 2000 Berlin” Binder, Flyer, “Allgemeiner ‘fahr rad’—Korso NOlympia.”

131 Papiertiger, “Olympia 2000 in Berlin” Binder, “Spannung bis 20.20 Uhr—und dann … ,” Berliner Zeitung, September 23, 1993.

132 Ward, Post-Wall Berlin, 288.

133 Strom, Building the New Berlin, 121.

134 Colomb, Staging the New Berlin, 105; Rose, Berlin, 137–40; Strom, Building the New Berlin, 102–03.

135 Alberts, “Berlin's Failed Bid to Host the 2000 Summer Olympic Games,” 511–12.

136 LaFond, Michael A., “eXperimentcity: cultivating sustainable development in Berlin's Freiräume,” in Insurgent Public Space: Guerrilla Urbanism and the Remaking of Contemporary Cities, ed. Hou, Jeffrey (New York: Routledge, 2010), 61–63Google Scholar.

137 Scharenberg, Albert and Bader, Ingo, “Berlin's Waterfront Site Struggle,” City: Analysis of Urban Trends, Culture, Theory, Policy, Action 13, nos. 2–3 (2009): 328–29CrossRefGoogle Scholar.  See also Initiativkreis Mediaspree Versinken! Spreeufer für Alle (http://www.ms-versenken.org/; accessed May 24, 2018).

138 Scharenberg and Bader, “Berlin's Waterfront Site Struggle,” 332–33.

139 Scharenberg and Bader, “Berlin's Waterfront Site Struggle,” 333.

140 Harvey, Rebel Cities, ix–xviii; Soja, Seeking Spatial Justice, 101–05.

141 Soja, Seeking Spatial Justice, 59.

142 Harvey, Rebel Cities, xii, xvi.

143 Soja, Seeking Spatial Justice, 191. See also Kuhn, Vom Häuserkampf zur neoliberalen Stadt, 13–14.

144 Gold and Gold, “Introduction,” Olympic Cities, 3–5.

145 Dempsey, Chris and Zimbalist, Andrew, No Boston Olympics: How and Why Smart Cities Are Passing on the Torch (Lebanon, NH: ForeEdge, 2017), 9, 40Google Scholar. On the failed Munich bid, see Brauer, Gernot, “NOlympia—Warum Deutschland keine Olympischen Winterspiele bekommt,” in Akzeptanz in der Medien- und Protestgesellschaft: Zur Debatte um Legitimation, öffentliches Vertrauen, Transparenz und Partizipation, ed. Bentele, Günter, Bohse, Reinhard, Hitschfeld, Uwe, and Krebber, Felix (Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien, 2015), 373–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar. On the citizen movement opposing Munich's bid, see the website NOlympia (http://www.nolympia.de/grunde-gegen-olympia-2018/; accessed May 24, 2018).

146 See Bert Schulz, “Olympiagegner bilden ein Team,” die tageszeitung, August 1, 2014 (http://www.taz.de/!5036333/).

147 For objections to Hamburg's bid, see the websites NOlympia Hamburg: Etwas Besseres aus Olympia (http://www.nolympia-hamburg.de/; accessed May 24, 2018); and Volksinitiative Stop Olympia Hamburg (http://www.stopolympia.de/; accessed May 24, 2018). On the referendum, see “Olympia-Bewerbung abgelehnt,” hamburg.de (http://www.hamburg.de/olympia-referendum/4645784/abstimmungsergebnis/; accessed May 24, 2018).

148 Dempsey and Zimbalist, No Boston Olympics, 58, 76, 115. See also the website No Boston Olympics (http:// www.nobostonolympics.org/; accessed May 24, 2018).

149 Rick Maese, “L.A. Olympic Bid Committee Agrees to Wait, Giving Paris the 2024 Games,” The Washington Post, July 31, 2017 (https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/olympics/la-olympic-bid-committee-agrees-to-wait-giving-paris-the-2024-games/2017/07/31/ec34eae4-7614-11e7-8839-ec48ec4cae25_story.html?utm_term=.3d3fd27b8f98).

150 On anti-Olympic protest efforts in Los Angeles (1984), Atlanta (1996), and Salt Lake City (2002), see Burbank, Matthew J., Heying, Charles H., and Andranovich, Greg, “Antigrowth Politics or Piecemeal Resistance? Citizen Opposition to Olympic-Related Economic Growth,” Urban Affairs Review 35, no. 3 (2000): 334–57Google Scholar.

151 Silva, Gerardo, “‘Call Me the World Cup and Invest in Me.’ A Commentary on Brazil's Recent Street Protests against the World Cup and the Olympic Games,” International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development 5, no. 2 (2013): 175–76CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

152 World Cup and Olympics Popular Committee of Rio de Janeiro, Rio 2016 Olympics: The Exclusion Games (2015) (https://issuu.com/mantelli/docs/dossiecomiterio2015_eng_issuu; accessed May 24, 2018).