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Complete Families, Half Families, No Families at All: Female-Headed Households and the Reconstruction of the Family in the Early Federal Republic

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 December 2008

Elizabeth Heineman
Affiliation:
Bowling Green State University

Extract

More than any other social institution”, proclaimed parliamentarian Bernhard Winkelheide in a meeting of the first West German Bundestag, “the family has fallen into the whirlpool created by the collapse.” His colleagues evidently agreed. Surrounded by families that still bore the scars of wartime separation and death, lawmakers made the “reconstruction of the family” a priority in the first decade of the Federal Republic's existence.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Conference Group for Central European History of the American Historical Association 1996

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References

1. Verhandlungen des deutschen Bundestages (hereafter VdBT) (Bonn, 1950—), I.Google Scholar Wahlperiode, 162. Sitzung, 13 September 1951, 6569.

2. Bomhoff, Gerhard, “Die Folgen des zweiten Weltkrieges für unsere Jugend,” Neues Beginnen 13 (1959): 117–18.Google Scholar

3. Moeller, Robert, Reconstructing Motherhood: Women and Family in the Politics of Postwar West Germany (Berkeley, 1993);Google ScholarMoeller, Robert, “Reconstructing the Family in Reconstruction Germany: Women and Social Policy in the Federal Republic, 1949–1955,” Feminist Studies 15 (1989): 137–69;CrossRefGoogle ScholarDelille, Angela and Grohn, Andrea, Blick zurück aufs Glück: Frauenleben und Familienpolitik in den 50er Jahren (Berlin, 1985).Google Scholar

4. Meyer, Sibylle and Schulze, Eva, Wie wir das alles geschafft haben (Munich, 1984);Google ScholarMeyer, Sibylle and Schulze, Eva, Auswirkungen des II. Weltkrieges auf Familien (Berlin, 1989).Google Scholar

5. On the state's role in “reconstructing the family,” see especially Moeller, Reconstructing Motherhood. On sociocultural aspects of this “reconstruction,” see Meyer and Schulze, Wie wir das alles geschafft haben; Meyer and Schulze, Auswirkungen; Meyer, Sibylle and Schulze, Eva, Von Liebe sprach damals keiner: Familienalltag in der Nachkriegszeit (Munich, 1985);Google Scholar Delille and Grohn, Buck zurück

6. “Die standesamtlich beurkundeten Kriegessterbefälle und gerichtlichen Todeserklärungen in den Jahren 1939 bis 1954,” Wirtschaft und Statistik (1956): 302–4. Forty percent of recorded casualties during the war were married men. By contrast, some seventy-eight percent of men declared dead after the war were married. This reflects widows' interests in having their status clarified. By 1954, forty-five percent of total recorded casualties were married.

7. Grebing, Helga, Pozorski, Peter, Schulze, Rainer, Die Nachkriegsentwicklung in Westdeutschland: 1945–1949, vol. A: Die wirtschaftlichen Grundlagen (Stuttgart, 1980), 19.Google Scholar

8. The divorce rate of 1939 was 0.89 per thousand population; of 1948, 1.87 per thousand population. “Eheschliessungen, Geborene, Gestorbene und Ehescheidungen im Reichsgebiet,” Statistisches Jahrbuch (1962): 55–57. A physician deeply involved in matters of population policy (Hans Harmsen) estimated in 1949 that there was one abortion per 2.2 live births; in 1945 there had been one abortion for every 3.3 live births and in 1942 only one abortion for every twenty live births. Excerpt from a 20 April 1949 report of Protestant women's work in Germany, ffm #9; ADW, BP 220 #42 Bd. 1; Archiv des Diakonischen Werkes—Innere Mission (hereafter ADW-IM). The illegitimacy rate of 1946, 16.4 percent of births, was more than twice that of 1939. Die Frau im wirtschaftlichen und sozialen Leben der Bundesrepublik (Wiesbaden, 1956), 47.Google Scholar At the height of the epidemic of sexually transmitted disease in August 1946, there were 90.6 reported cases of gonorrhea and 30.2 of syphilis per ten thousand civilian population; the true rates were much higher, but even these reported rates were double those of 1934. Monthly Report of the Military Government—US Zone 38 (August 1948): 8.

9. Three percent of respondents to a 1950 poll in the Darmstadt area felt that the mother of an illegitimate child should be condemned. Thirty-five percent of those in the city and thirty-one percent of those in the country felt that she should be treated leniently; forty-six percent of town residents and forty-two percent of country people felt that she should be treated without prejudice. Forty-one percent in the city and thirty-one percent in the country said they would accept cohabitation in some or in all circumstances. Baumert, Gerhard, Deutsche Familien nach dem Kriege (Darmstadt, 1952), 174, 176.Google Scholar A 1948 poll in Hamburg and Schleswig-Holstein posed the question, “Is ‘free love’ immoral?” Sixty-one percent of respondents answered “no,” and an additional ten percent were undecided. Seeler, Angela, “Ehe, Familie und andere Lebensformen in den Nachkriegsjahren im Spiegel der Frauenzeitschriften,” in “Das Schicksal Deutschlands liegt in der Hand seiner Frauen”—Frauen in der deutschen Nachkriegsgeschichte, ed. Anna-Elisabeth, Freier and Kuhn, Annette (Düsseldorf, 1984), 90121Google Scholar, here 118. See also von Friedeburg, Ludwig, Die Umfrage in der Intimsphäre (Stuttgart, 1953).Google Scholar

10. Heineman, Elizabeth, “‘Standing Alone’: Single Women from Nazi Germany to the Federal Republic” (Ph.D. diss., University of North Carolina, 1993), 242–91.Google Scholar

11. On the role of memories of the traumas of 1945 in shaping women's situation in the early Federal Republic, see Heineman, Elizabeth, “The Hour of the Women:ries of Germany's ‘Crisis Years’ and West German National Identity,” American Historical Review 101 (1996): 354–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar Although the term “illegitimate children” is problematic, it is an accurate translation of the West German terminology of the 1950s (and of today). The East German government rejected the term, substituting the formulation “children whose parents have never been married to each other” in its 1961 Family Law.

12. The rapidly expanding literature on women and the welfare state notes this tendency, but also points to national variations. Bock, Gisela and Thane, Pat, eds, Maternity and Gender Policies: Women and the Rise of the European Welfare States, 1880s–1950s (London, 1991);Google ScholarJenson, Jane, “Both Friend and Foe: Women and State Welfare,” in Becoming Visible: Women in European History, 2nd ed., ed. Bridenthal, Renate, Koonz, Claudia, Stuard, Susan (Boston, 1987), 535–57;Google ScholarGordon, Linda, ed., Women, the State, and Welfare (Madison, 1990);Google ScholarAbramovitz, Mimi, Regulating the Lives of Women: Social Welfare Policy from Colonial Times to the Present (Boston, 1988);Google ScholarSkocpol, Theda, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, 1992);Google ScholarPedersen, Susan, Family Reproduction and the Origins of the Welfare State: Britain and France 1914–1945 (Cambridge, 1994).Google Scholar

13. “Wer mit uns geht, kämpft gegen Not,” Reichsbund (January 1956): 7.

14. Hausen, Karin, “The German Nation's Obligations to the Heroes' Widows of World War I,” in Behind the Lines: Gender and the Two World Wars, ed. Higonnet, Margaret Randolphet al. (New Haven, 1987), 126–40;Google ScholarPederson, Susan, “Gender, Welfare and Citizenship in Britain during the Great War,” American Historical Review 95 (1990): 9831006.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

15. Parlamentarischer Rat, Hauptausschuss, 17. Sitzung, 3 December 1948, 206–7, Parlamentarisches Archiv, Bonn (hereafter PA).

16. “Veraltete Paragraphen,” Hessische Nachrichten (24 January 1949), quoted in AntjeSpäth, “Vielfältige Forderungen nach Gleichberechtigung und ‘nur’ ein Ergebnis: Artikel 3 Absatz 2 GG,” in Freier and Kuhn, Das Schicksal Deutschlands, 112–69; here 147–48.

17. Lengthier discussions of the adoption of equal rights for men and women can be found in Moeller, Reconstructing Motherhood, 38–61; Späth, , “Vielfältige Förderungen”; Barbara Böttger, Das Recht auf Gleichheit und Differenz: Elisabeth Selbert und der Kampf der Frauen um Art. 3 II Grundgesetz (Münster, 1990);Google ScholarFeuersenger, Marianne, Die garantierte Gleichberechtigung (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1980);Google ScholarRuhl, Klaus-Jörg, Verordnete Unterordnung: Erwerbstätige Frauen zwischen konservativer Ideologie und Wirtschaftswachstum (Munich, 1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

18. Some members of the Parliamentary Council, however, doubted that protection of the family should be a constitutional matter. See for example Parlamentarischer Rat, Ausschuss fir Grundsatzfragen, 29. Sitzung, 4 December 1948, Z5/35, folio 1145–46, 1149–50, 1170–72, Bundesarchiv Koblenz (hereafter BAK).

19. This is the more fluent version of the sentence, which, since its introduction, had benefited from the work of the German Language Association. Parlamentarischer Rat, Hauptausschuss, 43. Sitzung, 18 January 1949, Z5/50, folio 931, BAK. For the original wording, see Parlamentarischer Rat, Ausschuss für Grundsatzfragen, 24. Sitzung, 23 November 1948, Z5/34, folio 1038, BAK.

20. Quoted in Feuersenger, Die garantierte Gleichberechtigung, 50. For the SPD's formulation of marriage and the family, see Parlamentarischer Rat, Ausschuss für Grundsatzfragen, 29. Sitzung, 4 December 1948, Z5/35, folio 1181, BAK; for the KPD's formulation, which made no mention of marriage whatsoever, see Parlamentarischer Rat, Hauptausschuss, 43. Sitzung, 18 January 1949, Z5/50, folio 947, BAK.

21. Böttger, Das Recht auf Gleichheit und Differenz, 259–60; Moeller, Reconstructing Motherhood, 69–70.

22. Parlamentarischer Rat. Hauprausschuss, 43. Sitzung, 18 January 1949, Z5/50, folio 941, BAK. The CDU's Helene Weber also cited her social work experience; see folio 946.

23. See for example Parlamentanscher Rat, Hauptausschuss, 43. Sitzung, 18 January 1949, Z5/50, folio 951, BAK.

24. Parlamentarischer Rat, Hauptausschuss, 43. Sitzung, 18 January 1949, Z5/50, folio 944, BAK.

25. Parlamentarischer Rat, Hauptausschuss. 43. Sitzung, 18 January 1949, Z5/50, folio 952–53, BAK. Theodor Heuss initially supported equal rights regardless of legitimacy on the dual grounds of children's individual rights and single women's rights to children in light of the demographic imbalance. His change of heart probably doomed the clause concerning equal rights, regardless of legitimacy, to defeat. Parlamentarischer Rat, Ausschuss für Grundsatzfragen, 29. Sitzung, 4 December 1948, Z5/35, folio 1150, BAK; Parlamentarischer Rat, Ausschuss für Grundsatzfragen, 30. Sitzung, 6 December 1948, Z5/35, folio 1114, 1119. BAK.

26. Parlamentarischer Rat, Hauptausschuss, 43. Sitzung, 18 January 1949, Z5/50, folio 955, BAK. This class-biased argument may have been a purely strategic move on the part of the SPD, whose followers were most typically of working-class backgrounds: Selbert could have been trying to remind members of the CDU/CSU and Center Party that their daughters, and not just the daughters of the proletariat, might become unmarried mothers. Only the Communist representative to the main committee openly challenged the implication that an inferior legal position for young, unwed, working-class mothers and their children, at least, was warranted. Parlamentarischer Rat, Hauptausschuss, 43. Sitzung, 18 January 1949, Z5/50, folio 960, BAK.

27. Moeller, Protecting Motherhood, 84–86, 92–99.

28. On Würmeling, see Delille and Grohn, Blick zurück, 64–70; Moeller, Reconstructing Motherhood. For Würmeling's language on the “egotism” of single people and couples with few children or none, see VdBT, 2. Wahlperiode, 15. Sitzung, 12 February 1954, 488–93; Grundlage der Gesellschaft ist die Familie,” Bulletin des Presse- und Informationsamtes der Bundesregierung 21 (11 1953): 1851–54.Google Scholar

29. See, for example, the debates about “money for children.” Würmeling wanted a public commitment to a meaningful level of support to large families; the majority of the CDU/CSU prefered that these benefits be provided by the employer of the head-of-household—at a level that would not too greatly burden the employer. Moeller, Reconstructing Motherhood, 109–41; Ruhl, Verordnete Unterordnung, 156–75.

30. The socialist Arbeiterwohlfahrt (Workers' Welfare) had been banned during the Nazi period; the Protestant Innere Mission (Inner Mission) and Catholic Caritas (Charity) had continued to operate. For an example of the continuation of Weimar-era discussions into the postwar period, see Hasenclever, Christa, Jugendhilfe und Jugendgesetzgebung seit 1900 (Göttingen, 1978).Google Scholar The matter of illegitimacy also attracted a great deal of attention during the Nazi period, and even the Nazi-era debates drew heavily on positions developed during the Weimar years. Heineman, “Standing Alone,” 89–98.

31. Zillken, Elisabeth, “Zur Abänderung des Unehelichenrechts,” (typescript, n.d. [19501952]), 319.4 E VII, 3 Fasz.9: 1949–61, Archiv des Deutschen Caritas-Verbandes (hereafter DCV).Google Scholar

32. East Germany's “Law for the Protection of Mothers and Children” of 27 September 1950 gave unmarried mothers full parental authority over their children. On Christian conservatives' concerns about materialism and secularism, see Mitchell, Maria, “Materialism and Secularism: CDU Politicians and National Socialism, 1945–1949,” Journal of Modern History 65 (1995): 278308.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

33. Zillken, “Zur Abänderung des Unehelichenrechts”; Dr. Walter Becker, “Vorschläge zur Neugestaltung des Rechts des unehelichen Kindes,” Welt der Frau (August 1952): 29–31.

34. DrBecker, Walter, “Zur Frage der Neuordnung des Unehelichenrechts,” (typescript, n.d. [19491950])Google Scholar attached to letter to Elisabeth Zillken, 20 March 1950, 319. 4 SKF E VII, 3 Fasz.7: 1949–55, DCV; Zillken, “Zur Abänderung des Unehelichenrechts.” According to Zillken, a majority of suspected fathers claimed that the women who sued for support had also had relations with other men during the period of conception.

35. Becker, “Zur Frage der Neuordnung des Unehelichenrechts.”

36. Hasenclever, Christa, “Zur Reform des Unehelichenrechts,” Neues Beginnen (October 1953)Google Scholar: 1–3. See also “Debatte um das Unehelichenrecht,” Neues Beginnen (July 1951): 7.

37. Prof. DrBosch, F. W., “Probleme einer Reform des Unehelichenrechts,” Ehe und Familie 8 (1961): 457–63.Google Scholar

38. Oberlandesgerichtsrat DrFinke, F.J., “Zum neuen Entwurf eines Gesetzes zur Vereinheitlichung und Änderung familienrechtlicher Vorschriften,” Ehe und Familie 5 (1958): 353–58.Google Scholar

39. Protokoll: Konferenz eines Unterausschusses des Fachausschusses Jugendwohlfahrt am 14. und 15. November 1959 in Frankfurt”, ADW-IM; Hagemeyer, Marie, “Zum Familienrechtsänderungsgesetz,” Informationen für die Frau 7 no. 12 (1958) (copy), B141/15643Google Scholar, BAK. See also: Der Präsident des Landgerichts in Göttingen an den Herrn Oberlandesgerichtspräsidenten in Celle, 8 April 1959, B141/15641, BAK.

40. Hagemeyer, Maria, Der Entwuf des Familiengesetzbuches der “Deutschen Demokratischen Republik” (Bonn, 1955).Google Scholar

41. Beitzke, Webler, Deutsches Institut für Vormundschaftswesen, September 1958 an die Mitglieder des Rechtsausschusses des Bundestages, B141/15643, BAK. See also Kurzprotokoll. 17. Sitzung des Ausschusses für Familien- und Jugendfragen, Bundestag, 4 February 1959, III 394 A 1 #11 folio 17/9, PA; “Vorläufige Stellungnahme der Zentrale des katholischen Fürsorgevereins für Mädchen, Frauen und Kinder e.V., Dortmund, zu dem Entwurf eines Gesetzes zur Vereinheitlichung und Änderung familienrechtlicher Vorschriften,” B141/15643, BAK.

42. “Bericht des Ausschusses für Familien- und Jugendfragen (10. Ausschuss) zu dem Entwurf eines Gesetzes zur Vereinheitlichung und Änderung familienrechtlicher Vorschriften, 27 April 1959”—Bundestag Drucksache 530. III 394 A 3 #2, folio 6, PA. The research findings were eventually published in Sepp Groth's tellingly-titled Kinder ohne Familie: Das Schicksal des unehelichen Kindes in unserer Gesellschaft (Children without Family: The Fate of the Illegitimate Child in our Society) (Munich, 1961).

43. The Institute for Guardianship's research indicated that only ten to twenty percent of unwed mothers even wanted full parental authority. The proposals of Hagemeyer and Workers' Welfare, however, did not necessarily contradict mothers' apparent lack of interest in parental authority. Many unmarried mothers relied on official guardians to pursue claims for financial support from their children's fathers. The Institute's poll did not ask mothers whether they would be interested in parental authority if the official guardian retained the power to pursue delinquent fathers for child support, as the proposals of Hagemeyer and Workers' Welfare suggested. See Beitzke, Webler, Deutsches lnstitut für Vormundschaftswesen, September 1958 an die Mitglieder des Rechtsausschusses des Bundestages, B141/15643, BAK.

44. “Bericht des Ausschusses für Familien- und Jugendfragen zu Drucksache 530: Entwurf eines Gesetzes zur Vereinheitlichung und Änderung familienrechtlicher Vorschriften” (n.d. [late 1959]), B141/15644, BAK.

45. The draft flew through this and other committees without change. See also “Stenographisches Protokoll, 3. Sitzung des Unterausschusses ‘Familienrechtsänderungsgesetz’ des Rechtsausschusses am 23. September 1960”, B141/15644, BAK; “Ausschuss für Familienund Jugendfragen Ausschussdrucksache 16, 15 April 1959: Zusammenstellung der im Ausschuss für Familien- und Jugendfragen gefassten Beschlüsse zum Entwurf eines Gesetzes zur Vereinheitlichung und Änderung familienrechtlicher Vorschriften,” B141/15643, BAK.

46. Boehmer, Gustav, Die Teilreform des Familienrechts durch das Gleichberechtigungsgesetz vom 18. Juni 1952 und das Familienrechtsänderungsgesetz vom 11. August 1961 (Tübingen, 1962), 6064.Google Scholar

47. The Illegitimacy Law (Nichtehelichengesetz) went into effect on 1 July 1970. The Second Law to Revise and Extend the Law for the Welfare of Youth (2. Gesetz zur Änderung und Ergänzung des Jugendwohlfahrtsgesetzes) of 27 June 1970 obligated the Youth Bureaus to make advice and financial support available to single parents. Hasenclever, Jugendhilfe und Jugendgesetzgebung, 208–9.

48. Widows gained full parental authority upon their husbands' deaths, and divorced women had guardianship of their children. In fact, before sole paternal authority was declared unconstitutional in 1959, divorced and widowed women had greater rights vis-à-vis their children than did married women.

49. For overviews of the Law to Aid Victims of War, see Diehl, James, Thanks of the Fatherland (Chapel Hill, 1993);Google ScholarHudemann, Rainer, Sozialpolitik im deutschen Südwesten zwischen Tradition und Neuordnung, 1945–1953 (Mainz, 1988).Google Scholar

50. For statistical overviews of beneficiaries of the law, see Schönleiter, W[aldemar], Die Kriegsopferversorgung (Stuttgart, 1961);Google ScholarDie Leistungen der Bundesrepublik Deutschland auf dem Gebiet der Kriegsopferversogung 1.4.1950–31.12.1956 (Bonn:, nd., [prob. 1957]);Google Scholar “Kriegsopferversorgung 1950–1977,” (pamphlet. Reichsbund der Kriegs- und Zivilbeschädigten, Sozialrentner und Hinterbliebenen [hereafter Reichsbund], n.d., [prob. 1977]), ZSg 1–156/8(1), BAK.

51. Until the Law to Aid Victims of War was passed in October 1950, victims of war were covered by occupation-era laws that varied by state and zone and which were financed by the states. A federal “bridge law” (Überbrückungsgesetz) of March 1950 allowed for consideration of hardship cases that state laws failed to cover. Gesetz zur Verbesserung von Leistungen an Kriegsopfer, 27 March 1950 (Bundesgesetzblatt [hereafter BGBl.], 77). For details of this law, see “Richtlinien über den Härteausgleich in der Kriegsopferversorgung,” Mitteilungen des deutschen Vereins für öfentliche und private Fürsorge (October 1950): 231. Special pensions for victims of war were never reintroduced in the German Democratic Republic, which included victims of war in programs for victims of such misfortunes as industrial accidents.

52. The term “orphan” was used generically to refer to “full orphans.” who had lost both parents, and “half orphans,” who had lost only one parent. The distinction between widows whose children were legally recognized half-orphans and those whose children were not was crucial; see discussion below on “apparently-legitimate children.”

53. Deutscher Bundestag Drucksache no. 1333, 12 September 1950, B136/389, BAK.

54. VdBT, I. Wahlperiode, 13 September 1950, 3167–70.

55. See also Franke, Lothar, Das tapfere Leben: Lebensfragen alleinstehender Frauen und Mütter (Cologne-Hoffnungsthal, 1957), 2021;Google ScholarGerth, Inge, “Zur sozialen Lage der Kriegerwitwen,” Sozialarbeit 7 (1958): 152–56Google Scholar, here 155.

56. Verhandlungen des (26.) Ausschusses für Kriegsopfer- und Kriegsgefangenenfragen des Deutschen Bundestages über das Bundesversorgungsgesetz, 107D, I/87A, Lfd. 10, PA.

57. Diehl, Thanks of the Fatherland, 228.

58. Abg. Fr. Kalinke (DP), remarks made in 32. Sitzung des Ausschusses für Kriegsopferund Kriegsgefangenenfragen, 28 September 1950 (stenographic protocol, copy), I/87A, Bd.2, p. 61, PA.

59. Abg. Mende, Abg. Fr. Kalinke, remarks made in 37. Sitzung des Ausschusses für Kriegsopfer- und Kriegsgefangenenfragen, 11 October 1950 (stenographic protocol, copy), I/87A, Bd.2, pp. 19, 21, PA. In fact, wartime provisions awarded only token amounts to women who had not lived with or been supported by their husbands prior to the man's military service and who had no children with their husbands. Heineman, “Standing Alone,” 135–85; Neue Bestimmungen über den Familienunterhalt,” Soziale Praxis 49 (15 02 1940): 123–25;Google ScholarDie Kriegsehe und weitere Neuerungen im Familienunterhaltsrecht,” Mitteilungen des deutschen Vereins für öfentliche und private Fürsorge 21 (03 1940): 4547.Google Scholar

60. Diehl, Thanks of the Fatherland, 231.

61. They began to collect their pensions in August 1953, with the Second Revision to the Law to Aid Victims of War of 7 August, 1953. By this time, the number of Type I widows had declined to about 38,000. Schönleiter, Waldemar, “Zweites Gesetz zur Änderung und Ergänzung des Bundesversorgungsgesetzes,” Bulletin des Presse- und Informationsamtes der Bundesregierung 164 (29 08 1953): 1377–78.Google Scholar

62. Able-bodied widows between the ages of forty and fifty who cared for an orphan received a reduced supplementary allowance; disabled widows and those over fifty received the full supplementary allowance for widows. Periodic revisions to the law raised the pensions.

63. Drei Jahre Landeswohtfahrtsverband Hessen, 1953–56 (Kassel, 1956), 51.Google Scholar

64. MariaProbst, “Die Stellung der Christlich-Sozialen-Union zur Kriegsopferversorgung,” draft of article for Festschrift Bayern-Kurier [nd.; late October 1955], NL219/16, BAK.

65. Der Arbeitsminister des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen—Hauptabteilung Landesarbeitsamt (lid–5340), Vermerk: Vennittlung von Kriegshinterbliebenen, 17 August 1950, Landesarbeitsamt NW #237 folio 133–37, here 134–35, Nordrhein-Westfälisches Hauptstaatsarchiv (hereafter NRW); JulianneFrieser, “Die Frau von heute,” Wille und Weg (September 1949): 80.

66. Degner, L.Leserbrief,” Sie 2 (5 01 1947): 4.Google Scholar

67. Der Arbeitsminister des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen—Hauptabteilung Landesarbeitsamt (lid-5340), Vermerk: Vermittlung von Kriegshinterbliebenen, 17 August 1950, Landesarbeitsamt NW #237 folio 133–37, here 134–35, NRW; Präsident des Landesarbeitsamts, WürttembergBaden (#506/49) an die Arbeitsämter, 1 December 1949, Abt.460 Arbeitsamt Tauberbischofsheim #18, Generallandesarchiv Karlsruhe (hereafter GLK); Präsident des Landesarbeitsamts, Württemberg-Baden (#108/49) an die Arbeitsämter, 7 March 1949, Abt.460 Arbeitsamt Tauberbischofsheim #18, GLK; Landesarbeitsamt Baden-Württemburg (Der Präsident-la 5350 A/320) an den Herrn Präsident der Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsvermittlung und Arbeitslosenfürsorge, 15 June 1954, B119/2967, BAK.

68. Many war widows subsisted by patching together a number of pensions, for example, a war widow's pension, a widow's pension from the husband's previous employment, and a disability pension for the widow's own infirmity. Those who collected only a war widow's pension could usually get by without employment only if they contributed their pension to the common resources of a household that also included employed members. War widows who had no access to other pension income and who could not rely on the assistance of other members of their households nearly always had to seek employment. The government continued to argue the need to keep costs down as various parties petitioned for more generous pensions. See for example Finance Minister Schäffer, Fritz, “Die finanzielle Ordnung darf nicht gefährdet werden!Bulletin des Presse- und Informationsamtes der Bundesregierung 124 (4 Juli 1953): 1049–50.Google Scholar Nevertheless, cries of poverty became less convincing as the economy boomed in the 1950s. Between 1950–1951 and 1958–59, the percentage of the federal budget devoted to war victims' assistance declined from 15,9 percent (DM 2,344 billion) to 9,05 percent (DM 3,575 billion). “10 Fragen an Minister Blank,” Sozialpolitischer Presse- und Informationsdienst (Reichsbund) (26 September 1958), Abt. 508 #3273, Hessisches Hauptstaatsarchiv (hereafter HHA).

69. Outside income had a far smaller effect on the pensions of the wounded. Supplementary allowances were paid only to the degree necessary to bring the total income up to fixed levels, which ranged from DM 80 to DM 130 (depending on the number of dependents) for the wounded but were fixed at DM 80 for widows. The first DM 60 earned via the work of a wounded recipient but only the first DM 40 by the work of a widow were exempt from the income limit; beyond this amount, three-tenths of the earned income was exempt. Until January 1955, benefits from other pensions, which were more central to widows' survival than they were to veterans' survival, were calculated in full against warvictims' pensions (3. Novelle zum BVG of 1 January 1955). With the fifth revision to the law (5. Novelle zum BVG vom 1 April 1956), provisions for the exemption of outside income from income limits improved slightly.

70. Pars. 25–27, BVG. Social Welfare was regulated mainly by the 1951 Grundsätze über Voraussetzung, Art und Mass der öffentlichen Fürsorge; the paragraphs concerning occupational assistance to victims of war were coincidentally Paragraphs 25–27.

71. Berufsförderung für Kriegerwitwen,” VdK Mitteilungen 4 (07 1954): 310–11.Google Scholar The Verband der Kriegsbeschädigten, Kriegshinterbliebenen, und Sozialrentner Deutschlands (VdK) was West Germany's largest war victims' association.

72. The Central Welfare Office of Kassel, one of three regional welfare offices in Hessen, aided in the placement of precisely one war widow in 1951. “Die Hauptfürsorgestellen, ihre Aufgaben und ihre Tätigkeit,” Landeswohlfahrtsverband Hessen—Hauptfüirsorgestelle [nd.; 1953], Abt. 508 #3195, HHA; “Bericht über die Tätigkeit der Hauptfürsorgestelle Kassel im Rechnungsjahr 1951.” Abt. 508 #3195, HHA.

73. Deutacher Städtetag an das Bundesministerium für Arbeit (copy), 20 June 1950, B106/10726, BAK; Der Geschäftsführer des Bundesausschusses der Kriegsbeschädigten- und Kriegshinterbliebenen-Fürsorge im Bundesministerium des Innerns, “Übersicht der Gesetzentwürfe und Stellungnahmen zur zukünfrigen Gestaltung des SBG,” 12 April 1951, Bl06/10745, BAK.

74. Bundesministerium für Arbeit (II b 4–2380.1), Entwurf eines Schwerbeschädigtengesetzes, 9 October 1951, B119/1726, BAK. By the time the next draft appeared, the word “childless” had disappeared. “Begründung des Gesetzes über die Beschäftigung Schwerbeschädigter (Schwerbeschädigtengesetz),” [nd., probably draft of January 1952], B119/1726, BAK.

75. Landesarbeitsamt (IIe 3–5340.10), note, 28 November 1952, Landesarbeitsamt NR 1134/587 folio 14; =, NRW.

76. War victims' associations had called for (and never got) government assistance in the creation of jobs for survivors since 1919. “Hinterbliebenenkonferenz des VdK in Bad Godesberg,”, VdK Mitteilungen 1 (09 1951): 224–25;Google Scholar “Begründung des Gesetzes über die Beschäftigung Schwerbeschädigter (Schwerbeschädigtengesetz),” (n.d. [prob. draft of January 1952]), B119/1726, BAK; Der Staatssekretär des Bundeskanzleramtes (7–81003–669/52) an das Bundesministerium für Arbeit, des Innerns, und der Finanzen, 15 March 1952, B149/16571, BAK; “Frauenarbeit im Blickfeld der Fürsorge,” Mitteilungen des deutschen Vereins für öffentliche und private Fürsorge (April–May 1948): 84–86; “Wir fordern Arbeit für die Hinterbliebenen,” Wille und Weg (August 1948): 68; “Hinterbliebenen-Konferenz des Reichsbundes in Hamburg,” Reichsbund (August 1952): 4; Wuttke, Max, “Hinterbliebenenversorgung und HinterbliebenenarbeitVdK Mitteilungen 2 (1952): 531–38, here 533.Google Scholar See also MaxWuttke, “Stellungnahme des Sprechers des VdK, Hauptgeschäftsführer Max Wuttke, zum Entwurf des Gesetzes über die Beschäftigung Schwerbeschädigter,” delivered to the Bundestag Ausschuss der Kriegsbeschädigten- und Kriegshinterbliebenen-Fürsorge on 27 June 1952, B119/2965, BAK. The less equivocal position of the second-largest war vietims' association, the Reichsbund der Kriegs- und Zivilbeschädigten, Sozialrentner und Hinterbliebenen, regarding widows' work, was internally controversial; see Ursula Alter, “Mit der Sicherung von Arbeitsplätzen ist uns nicht gedient,” Wille und Weg (June 1952): 87.

77. Wuttke, “Stellungnahme”; Wuttke, Max, “Hinterbliebenenversorgung und HinterbliebenenarbeitVdK Mitteilungen 2 (1952): 531–38, here 534.Google Scholar

78. Widows of victims of industrial accidents, wives of men rendered incapable of employment because of war or industrial injuries, and wives of the missing were also covered by the law. In an earlier draft, three widows counted as one wounded person toward the fulfillment of quotas. Der Geschäftsführer des Bundesausschusses der Knegsbeschädigtenund Kriegshinterbliebenen-Fürsorge im Bundesministerium des Innerns, “Übersicht der Gesetzentwürfe und Stellungnahmen zur zukünftigen Gestaltung des SBG,” 12 April 1951, B106/10745, BAK.

79. The committee, established in 1950 after the tradition of a similar committee in the Weimar Republic, reported to the Ministry of the Interior, which was responsible for social welfare for victims of war. For general information on the Bundesausschuss, see “Förderung und Hilfe für Kriegsopfer,” Bulletin des Presse- und Informationsamtes der Bundesregierung no. 38 (25 February 1954): 311–12. The Bundesausschuss' “Aligemeine Verwaltungsvorschriften über die bevorzugte Arbeitsvermittlung der Witwen und Ehefrauen der Kriegs- und Arbeitsopfer” were published on 17 December 1953 by the Bundesanstak für Arbeitsvermittlung und Arbeitslosenversicherung. See reprint of the 14 May 1954 version, Die Praxis 7 (06 1954): 180–82.Google Scholar

80. The subcommittee for survivors' welfare, set up in 1954, included Elisabeth Selbert, who had been the most insistent voice favoring women's equal rights during the constitutional debates; Maria Detzel, in charge of survivors' welfare for the VdK; and Frau K. Vollnberg, who had a similar position with the Reichsbund. “Ergebnis-Protokoll über die Sitzung des Bundesausschusses der Kriegsbeschädigten- und Kriegshinterbliebenenfürsorge am 18. February 1954,” B149/7272, BAK; “Ergebnis-Protokoll über die Sitzung des Bundesausschusses der Kriegsbeschädigten- und Kriegshinterbliebenenfüirsorge am 22. June 1955,” B149/7272, BAK; “Vermerk über die gemeinsame Sitzung der Arbeitsausschüsse ‘Soziale Fürsorge’ und ‘Hinterbliebenenfürsorge’ des Bundesausschusses der Kriegsbeschädigten- und Kriegshinterbliebenenfürsorge am 25. Juni 1955,” B149/7273, BAK; “Ergebnisprotokoll über die Sitzung des Bundesausschusses der Kriegsbeschädigten- und Kriegshinterbliebenenfürsorge am 26. June 1958,” B149/8283, BAK.

81. “Richilinien des Verwaltungsrates der Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsvermittlung und Arbeitslosenversicherung über die Bildung bes. Vermittlungsstellen für Schwerbeschädigte sowie Witwen und Ehefrauen der Kriegs- und Arbeitsopfer vom 17. December 1953,” B149/16516, BAK; “Ailgemeine Verwaltungsvorschriften des Verwaltungsrates der Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsvemittlung und Arbeitslosenversicherung über die bevorzugte Arbeitsvermittlung der Witwen und Ehefrauen der Kriegs- und Arbeitsopfer” (draft), B149/6171, BAK; “Allgemeine Verwaltungsvorschriften des Verwaltungsrates der Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsvermittlung und Arbeitslosenversicherung über die bevorzugte Arbeitsvermittlung der Witwen und Ehefrauen der Knegs- und Arbeitsopfer vom 14.Mai 1954,” Die Praxis 7 (06 1954): 180–82;Google ScholarWuttke, Max, “Das Schwerbeschädigtengesetz in der praktischen Durchführung,” VdK Mitteilungen 5 (1955): 7783;Google Scholar Landesarbeitsamt Nordrhein-Westfalen, Rdvfg. 144/54 (Id 2/54) an die Herrn Direktoren der Arbeitsämter, 5 May 1954, Landesarbeitsamt NW #235 folio 266–68, NRW; Rundschreiben des Bundesministeriums des Innern (5307–4–1870/ 53), “Verrechnungsfähigkeit von Kosten für die Berufsförderung von Kriegerwitwen,” 8 June 1954, B106/10683, BAK.

82. In doubting widows' need, the local employment offices echoed skepticism that had been voiced at the national level during the drafting of the law. “Begründung des Gesetzes über die Beschäftigung Schwerbeschädigter (Schwerbeschädigtengesetz),” (n.d., probably draft of January 1952), B119/1726, BAK. In fact, rather than widows' placement putting wounded veterans at risk, the priority awarded to the severely wounded hindered the placement of widows; see “Kriegerwitwen sind zu bevorzugen!” Die Fackel (April 1955): 10.

83. Landesarbeitsamt Nordrhein-Westfalen, Rdvfg. 225/55 an die Herrn Direktoren der Arbeitsämter, 28 July 1955, Landesarbeitsamt NW #234 folio 202–08, NRW. See also Landesarbeitsamt Nordrhein-Westfalen, Rdvfg. 144/54 (Id 2/54) an die Herrn Direktoren der Arbeitsämter, 5 May 1954, Landesarbeitsamt NW #235 folio 266–68, here 267, NRW.

84. Landesarbeitsamt Nordrhein-Westfalen, Rdvfg. 144/54 (Id 2/54) an die Herrn Direktoren der Arbeitsämter, 5 May 1954, Landesarbeitsamt NW #235 folio 266–68, NRW; Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsvermittlung und Arbeitslosenversicherung, Ref. ORR Dr. Schwarz, an die Präsidenten der Landesarbeitsämter, 22 July 53, BI 19/2967, BAK; “Auswertung der Erfahrungsberichte der Arbeitsämter über die Betreuung von Witwen und Ehefrauen der Kriegs- und Arbeitsopfer, Stand 30. August 1954,” Landesarbeitsamt NW #235 folio 274–80, here 274, NRW; “Mehr Berufsförderung für Kriegerwitwen,” Reichsbund (July 1957): 11.

85. Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsvermittlung und Arbeitslosenversicherung, “Auswertung der zahlenmässigen Ergebnisse der Anzeigen gemäss Par. 11 SBG nach dem Beschäftigtenstand vom 1. November 1955 (Stand der Bearbeitung der Anzeigen am 15.Mai 1956),” B106/10727, BAK. See also Die Beschäftigung Schwerbeschädigter. Ein Efahrungsbericht der Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsvermittlung und Arbeitslosenversicherun über die Durchführung des SBG vom 16. Juni 1953 (Nuremberg, 1955), 5.Google Scholar

86. Because women's work was dominated by the young, widows already faced age barriers if they had achieved the not-so-advanced ages of twenty-eight or thirty. Der Arbeitsminister des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen—Hauptabteilung Landesarbeitamt (lid–5340), Vermerk: Vermittlung von Kriegshinterbliebenen, 17 August 1950; Landesarbeitsamt NW #237 folio 133–37, here 134, NRW; Landesarbeitsamt, Nordrhein-Westfalen (lld–3/5340), “Vermerk,” 18 September 1952. Landesarbeitsamt BR 1134/587 folio 9–11, NRW; “Auswertung der Erfahrungsberichte der Arbeitsämter über die Betreuung von Witwen und Ehefrauen der Kriegs- und Arbeitsopfer, Stand 30. August 1954,” Landesarbeitsamt NW #235 folio 274–80, NRW.

87. Der Senator für das Wohlfahrtswesen, Bremen (Degemer) (412–04–05/10) an den Bundesminister des Innerns, 16 July 1955, B106/10683, BAK. See also “Niederschrift über die Hauptversammlung der Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Deutschen Hauptfürsorgestellen am 10–11. September 1954 in Bremen,” B 149/7272, BAK; “Auswertung der Erfahrungsberichte der Arbeitsämter über die Betreuung von Witwen und Ehefrauen der Kriegs- und Arbeitsopfer, Stand 30. August 1954,” Landesarbeitsamt NW #235 folio 274–80, here 280, NRW.

88. Das Ministerium für Arbeit (V a 2–4358/55), 15 September 1955, discussed in Wenzel, Max, “Die Witwenbeihilfe für wiederverheiratete Kriegerwitwen,” VdK Mitteilungen 6 (11 1956): 506–8.Google Scholar Of course, not all women in “wild marriages” of the 1950s decided against marriage for strictly economic reasons. See women's testimonies in Bohne, Regine, Das Geschick der 2 Millionen. Die alleinlebende Frau in unserer Gesellschaft (Düsseldorf, 1960), 172ff.Google Scholar For the words of a war widow who recognized, too late, all she had given up by remarrying, see “Das Problem der zweiten Ehe,” Reichsbund (August 1954): 8.

89. Schuize, Emma, “Überlegungen zum Problem der ‘Onkelehen,’” Neues Beginnen 9 (06 1955): 85.Google Scholar

90. For example Lüders, Marie-Elisabeth, “Gesetzliche oder ‘freie’ Ehe?Welt der Frau 7 (06 1952): 2425.Google Scholar The origin of the estimate of 100,000 is unclear. Although the figure shocked contemporaries, it represented only a tiny proportion of West Germany's population of fifty million in the mid–1950s.

91. Die Niedersächsische Frauenvereinigung an Franz-Joseph Würmeling, 10 November 1955, B153/1113 folio 135–35, BAK.

92. Böll, Heinrich, Haus ohne Hüter (1954; rpt. Frankfurt am Main, 1972).Google Scholar

93. L.K. to Family Minister Würmeling, 18 February 1955, B153/1113 folio 54, BAK. Mutual assistance in the face of physical disability was often an element of such relationships; couples in which the husband or both partners were incapable of work were especially dependent on the woman's widow's pension. Even commentators who pleaded for greater understanding of widows in wild marriages often found the windows' choice unadmirable and blamed them for raising children who were likely to become delinquents. See Kolkmann, Käthe and Schlisske, Otto, Mütter allein: Lebens- und Erziehungsfragen (Stuttgart, 1955), 107ff.Google Scholar

94. L.K. to Würmeling, 18 February 1955, B153/1113 folio 54, BAK.

95. Couples with children often tried to have their offspring declared legitimate in order to give the children, at least, an honorable and secure status. The pair discussed here, like many others, considered having its union confirmed with a church ceremony that would not be recognized by civil law. With Germany's Civil Code of 1900, the civil marriage became the only marriage with legal standing; a church marriage had religious significance only. The Reichskonkordat of 20 July 1933, however, permitted the performance of a religious marriage to precede a civil marriage in case of “severe moral emergency.” Some priests now cited a moral emergency in performing weddings for couples they felt were trapped by pension law in wild marriages. The federal government argued that the threatened loss of a pension did not constitute a severe moral emergency and that such marriages would not be recognized. The issue was especially pressing in Austria, where church marriages without civil marriages had lost their legal standing only with Nazi law in 1938. See “‘Onkel-Ehen’: Stellungnahme zu einer kirchlichen Trauung vor der standesamtlichen Eheschliessung” Bulletin des Presse- und Informationsamtes der Bundesregierung no. 43 (4 March 1955): 359; DrRöder, Albrecht, “Die Witwenrente,” Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 20 December 1955, B153/1113, BAK;Google ScholarSchrieber, Wolfgang, “Das Problem der Onkelehen,” Die Praxis 9 (04 1956): 158–60;Google Scholar “Neues Rentengesetz gegen ‘Onkelehen’ in Österreich,” Bonner Rundschau, 1 July 1954, B149/1881 folio 77, BAK.

96. See especially the many constituent letters to the Labor Ministry, B149/1881. BAK.

97. “Der Staat macht die lustigen Witwen,” Der Mittag (3–4 January 1953), 15, B149/1881, BAK. The same file contains numerous clippings on the topic, including “WitwenAngst vor dem Rentenverlust beim Heiraten,” Wiesbadener Kurier, 23 December 1952; “Witwenrente auch bei neuer Heirat?” Frankfurter Neue Presse, 3 January 1953, “Renten und ‘Onkel-Ehen’: Die Vorschläge des Familienministers und der FDP,” Badische Zeitung, 18 february 1954.

98. From human rights groups: Präsident Jochen Klaus Schäfer and Generalsekretärin Ellen Glänzer-Link, Deutsche Liga für Menschenrecht, an das Bundesminiserium für Familie, 20 March 1956, B153/1113 folio 178–79, BAK. From social welfare groups: “Protokoll der Sitzung des Fachausschusses Jugendwohlfahrt in Bonn am 4. February 1955,” AW; Schulze, “Überlegungen.” From feminists: Tangemann, Ruth, “Onkel billiger als Vati,” Das Frauen-Journal: für die Frau in Beruf und Haus no. 9 (1956): 13.Google Scholar From war victims' associations: Erleichterung der Eheschliessung von Kriegerwitwen,” VdK Mitteilungen 4 (01 1954): 3839.Google Scholar From churches: “Denkschrift der katholischen Bischöfe Deutschlands zu den Fragen der ‘Rentenkonkubinate,’” 25 February 1955, Ehe und Familie 3 (1956): 33 The Gennan Protestant synod petitioned the government in 1954; see Kolkmann and Schlisske, 105.

99. Bundesministerium für Familie und Jugend (F3–6401–B) an Herrn Bundestagsabgeordneter Rainer Barzel (draft), 30 January 1959, B 153/1113, folio 245–47; BAK.

100. 5. Novelle zum BVG, 1 April 1956. For summaries of the law, see DrSchönleiter, Waldemar, “Fünftes Gesetz zur Änderung und Ergänzung des Bundesversorgungsgesetzes,” Bundesversorgungsblatt (1956): 100–2;Google ScholarDrSchönleiter, W[aldemar], “Fünftes Gesetz zur Änderung und Ergänzung des Bundesversorgungsgesetzes,” Bulletin des Presse- und Informationsamtes der Bundesregierung 130 (17 07 1956): 1291–92.Google Scholar Any support a divorced woman collected from the ex-husband was subtracted from her pension. Wenzel, Max, “Die Witwenbeihilfe für wiederverheiratete Kriegerwitwen,” VdK Mitteilungen 6 (11 1956): 506–8.Google Scholar

101. Ziem, Helmut, “Erstes Neuordnungsgesetz zur Reform des Kriegsopferrechts,” Sozialarbeit 9 (1960): 289–93.Google Scholar The number of widows receiving pensions increased slightly every year between 1955 and 1958, decreased during the following two years by less than 1 percent per year, increased again in 1961, then continued to decrease by less than 1 percent per year. Widows' deaths and remarriages and the creation of new war widows (by husbands' deaths from recognized war injuries) were the most important factors in widows' entry into and exit from the statistics. “Kriegsopferversorgung 1950–1977,” (pamphlet published by Reichsbund, n.d. [prob. 1977]), ZSg 1–156/8(1), BAK.

102. Moeller, Protecting Motherhood, 130–33. Statistics regarding marriage of partners in wild marriages are not available. Twenty-five to 30 percent of children born outside marriage in 1952 were legitimized by the time they were six years old. It is likely that a good number of these were born to couples living in wild marriage who later married. Groth, Kinder, 28.

103. For the high mortality of widows, see Freudenberg, Karl, Die Sterblichkeit nach dem Familienstand in Westdeutschland 1949/1951 (Hamburg, 1957).Google Scholar Women's health worsened in the decade following the end of the war, and widows had poorer health than did married women. Bulletin des Presse- und Informationsamtes der Bundesregierung no. 82 (3 05 1960): 798;Google Scholar Meyer and Schulze, Wie wir das alles geschafft haben, 200. In 1950, 7.6 percent of men between twenty-five and forty-five and 6.3 percent of men aged forty-five to sixty were severely disabled. Hudemann, Sozialpolitik, 528.

104. Illegitimate children of fallen men could be designated as war orphans if their fathers had recognized paternity during their lifetimes or if their mothers could prove paternity after the fallen man's death. The Law to Aid Victims of War granted benefits not only to war widows and orphans, but also to women and children whose husbands/fathers had been declared missing or were in prisoner-of-war camps.

105. Dr. Fürst, Statistisches Bundesamt—der Präsident (VII K 04/03), 21 March 1955, B141/15635, BAK.

106. “Verwaltungsvorschriften Nr. 1 Abs.2 zu Par.45 BVG,” cited in Ministry of Labor (IV b 3–1599/52), ORR Dr. Bürger an den Herrn Bundesminister für Arbeit, 3 June 1952, B149/1876 folio 92–93, BAK.

107. Gesetz über die Änderung und Ergänzung familienrechtlicher Vorschriften und über die Rechtsstellung der Staatenlosen of 12 April 1938 (Reichsgesetzblatt I, 380).

108. Bundesminister für Justiz (3400/3–11 048/53) an den Herrn Bundesminister für Arbeit Anton Storch, 21 April 1953, B149/1876 folio 114–15, BAK.

109. Gesetz über die Gleichberechtigung von Mann und Frau auf dem Gebiete des bürgerlichen Rechts und über die Wiederherstellung der Rechtseinheit auf dem Gebiete des Familienrechts [Familienrechrsgesetz] with Begründung, 15 July 1952, discussed in Ministerium für Justiz Dr. Bülow (3470/4–12 554/52) an den Herrn Bundesminister für Arbeit, 23 July 1952, B149/1876 folio 96, BAK. See also “Aus der Fürsorgepraxis,” Mitteilungen des deutschen Vereins für öffentliche und private Fürsorge (June 1949): 150–52.

110. Bundesministerium für Arbeit (IV b 3–1599/52) ORR Dr. Bürger an den Herrn Bundesminister für Justiz, 3 June 1952, B149/1876 folio 92–93, BAK; Bundesminister für Arbeit (IV) “Vermerk: Betrifft: Versorgung scheinehelicher Kinder nach dem BVG,” 10 February 1953, B149/1876 folio 108–9, BAK.

111. Bundesministerium für Arbeit (IV b 3–1599/52) ORR Dr. Bürger an den Herrn Bundesminister für Justiz, 3 June 1952, B149/1876 folio 92–93, BAK. Wives and children of prisoners of war and men declared missing received the same benefits as widows and orphans. A woman who did not have her husband declared dead continued to be legally married, and any children she bore were legitimate unless the state challenged their legitimacy in the public interest. If the man were declared dead, however, the state could challenge the children's legithnacy in the man's interest or in the interests of his descendants.

112. For the Labor Ministry's introduction of this clause, see Bundesministerium für Arbeit (IV b 2–1793/53) RR. Dr. Wilke an den Herrn Bundesminister für Justiz Thomas Dehler, 14 April 1953, B149/1876 folio 112–13, BAK. The measure did not pass without opposition. The Bundesrat objected to making an exception to the new Family rights Law so shortly after its passage, and the problem of “apparently-legitimate” children who had resulted from rape rather than from willed adultery caused some concern. Der Präsident des Bundesrates an den Herrn Bundeskanzler (copy), 27 March 1953, B153/345–II folio 555–57, BAK; “Schriftlicher Bericht des Ausschusses für Kriegsopfer- und Kriegsgefangenenftagen (26.Ausschuss) über den Entwurf eines Zweiten Gesetzes zur Änderung und Ergänzung des BVG—Drucksache #4493,” 17 June 1953, B153/345–II folio 574–82 (here 575), BAK; Kabinettsache (I A 6 1605–2417 A), “Betr: Entwurf eines Zweiten Gesetzes zur Änderung und Ergänzung des BVG; hier: Entwurf einer Stellungnahme der Bundesregierung zu den Änderungsvorschlägen des Bundesrates,” 17 April 1953, B153/345–II folio 571–73, BAK.

113. Bundesminister für Arbeit (IV) “Vermerk: Betrift: Versorgung scheinehelicher Kinder nach dem BVG,” 10 February 1953, B149/1876 folio 108–09, BAK. On financial interests, see Parlamentarischer Rat, Hauptausschuss, 43. Sitzung, 18 January 1949, Z5/50, folio 944, BAK.

114. Schönleiter, “Zweites Gesetz,” 1378.

115. Wuttke, Max, “Hinterbliebenenversorgung und Hinterbliebenenarbeit, VdK 2 (1952): 531–38;Google Scholar here. 535. The goal of creating “healthy soldiers' families” (Kriegefamilien) is repeated throughout the run of the journal.