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The Burschenschaft and German Political Culture, 1890–1914

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 August 2009

Lisa Fetheringill Zwicker
Lisa Fetheringill Zwicker
Affiliation:
Indiana University, South Bend
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Extract

In the history of the Burschenschaft published in 1939, Georg Heer wrote that with the coming of the National Socialists to power “the goals of the German Burschenschaft had been achieved; the National Socialist German Student Union had now taken over its tasks.” Of course Heer was not free to write what he wished about the 1935 dissolution of the Burschenschaft, but his interpretation is consistent with the ideas of many historians about this important organization within the history of German nationalism. Something had gone terribly wrong with this organization, despite its clear liberal and middle-class origins.

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Central European History , Volume 42 , Issue 3 , September 2009 , pp. 389 - 428
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Copyright © Conference Group for Central European History of the American Historical Association 2009

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References

1 Heer, Georg, Geschichte der Deutschen Burschenschaft, vol. 4, Die Burschenschaft in der Zeit der Vorbereitung des zweiten Reiches, im zweiten Reich und im Weltkrieg, von 1859–1919 (Heidelberg: Winter, 1939), 192Google Scholar.

2 On the early history of the Burschenschaft, see Böttger, Hugo, Handbuch für den Deutschen Burschenschafter (Berlin: Heymann, 1912), 7–160Google Scholar; Schulze, Friedrich and Ssymank, Paul, Das Deutsche Studententum (Leipzig: Voigtländers Verlag, 1910), 176–232Google Scholar; Wetzcke, Paul, Geschichte der Deutschen Burschenschaft, vol. I. Vor- und Frühzeit bis zu den Karlsbader Beschlüssen (Heidelberg: Winter, 1919)Google Scholar. Hardtwig, Wolfgang, “Studentische Mentalität—politische Jugendbewegung—Nationalismus. Die Anfänge der deutschen Burschenschaft,” Historische Zeitschrift 242 (1986): 581–624CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Brandt, Peter, “Von der Urburschenschaft bis zum Progress,” in Der Burschen Herrlichkeit. Geschichte und Gegenwart des studentischen Korporationswesen, ed. Brandt, Harm-Hinrich and Stickler, Matthias (Würzburg: Schöningh, 1998), 35–53Google Scholar. Schäfer, Gerhard stresses that völkisch tendencies also existed in the early Burschenschaft, “Die frühe Burschenschaftsbewegung,” in Blut und Paukboden. Eine Geschichte der Burschenschaft, ed. Heither, Dietrich et al. (Frankfurt: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, 1997), 14–53Google Scholar.

3 Jarausch, Konrad, Students, Society, and Imperial Politics: The Rise of Academic Illiberalism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982), 253, 363Google Scholar. See a summary of some of his conclusions in Jarausch, Konrad, “Liberal Education as Illiberal Socialization: The Case of Students in Imperial Germany,” Journal of Modern History 50 (1978): 610–630CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Heither, Dietrich, Verbündete Männer. Die Deutsche Burschenschaft—Weltanschauung, Politik und Brauchtum (Cologne: PapyRossa Verlag, 2000), 21Google Scholar, and also 10, 56, 80. For “continuities in anti-democratic thinking,” see Heither, Dietrich, “Versuch einer Bilanz. Thesen zur Geschichte und Gegenwart deutscher und österreichischer Burschenschaften,” in Blut und Paukboden, ed. Heither, et al. , 271–278Google Scholar; Giles, Geoffrey J., Students and National Socialism in Germany (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985), 18Google Scholar; Scheuer, Oskar Franz, Burschenschaft und Judenfrage. Der Rassenantisemitismus in der deutschen Studentenschaft (Berlin: Verlag Berlin-Wien, 1927)Google Scholar. This article focuses on the largest German-based Burschenschaft group, the Allgemeiner Deputierten-Convent (ADC). It emerged from a gathering of thirty-five Burschenschaft chapters in Eisenach in 1881. At that point they refused to join with Burschenschaft chapters from Austria, although the issue of closer ties with Austrian Burschenschaft chapters often came up later. The ADC became the “Deutsche Burschenschaft” in 1902. In addition to the Deutsche Buschenschaft, there was also the Rüdesheimer Verband deutscher Burschenschaften at the Technical Colleges as well as the Reform Burschenschaft that united in the Allgemeiner Deutschen Burschenbund in 1883. The Reform Burschenschaft was an explicitly liberal and democratic organization that welcomed Jewish students. By 1913 they had 885 members, in contrast to 3,300 in the Deutsche Buschenschaft. For the Reform Burschenschaft, see Kraussmüller, Helmut and Anger, Ernst, Die Geschichte des Allgemeinen Deutschen Burschenbundes 1883–1933 und das Schicksal der ehemaligen ADV-Burschenschaften (Erlangen: Studentengeschichtliche Vereinigung des CC, 1989)Google Scholar.

4 Böttger, Handbuch, 316.

5 Only a few examples include “Die Wirkung des Alkohols auf den Organismus,” Burschenschaftliche Blätter (hereafter BB) vol. XVII, no. 1, April 1, 1903, 23; “Der deutschen Burschenschaften zur Jahreswende,” BB, vol. XIX, no. 7, Jan. 1, 1905, 147; “Aufruf an die deutschen Burschenschaften!,” BB, vol. XXII, no. 4, Nov. 15, 1907; “Burschenschaftliche Bestrebungen,” BB, vol. XXIII, no. 8, Jan. 15, 1909, 3; “Von studentischem Luxus,” BB, vol. XXIV, no. 2, Oct. 15, 1909, 27; “Zum Problem der sexuellen Sittlichkeit,” BB, vol. XXV, no. 11, March 1, 1911, 256; “Burschen Heraus!” BB, vol. XXVI, no. 3, Nov. 1, 1911, 54; “Essen,” BB, vol. XXVIII, no. 5, June 1, 1914, 143; Satori-Neumann, Bruno Th., Die Berliner Burschenschaften Germania (Berlin, 1912), 171–172Google Scholar; Wirth, Alfred, Geschichte der Freiburger Burschenschaft Alemannia, 1860–1935 (Freiburg: Selbstverl. der Burschenschaft, 1935), 175Google Scholar.

6 “Sport und Studententum,” BB, vol. XIX, no. 5, June 1, 1905, 116; the workers' courses in Stuttgart were very popular and 1,200 individuals signed up to take the classes, “Einen Appell an die Akademiker,” BB, vol. XXV, no. 9, Feb. 1, 1911, 210. Beginning in 1912 the Burschenschaft had a special section in its newspaper on sports and a report on sports at the annual meeting. “Sitzungsbericht des XXXI. ordentlichen Burschentages zu Eisenach,” (Heidelberg, 1912). All of the protocols from the annual meetings can be found in the Bundesarchiv Koblenz (hereafter BAK) in the following file: BAK, DB9 Deutsche Burschenschaft ADC/CB 1883-1918 B/III. See also BB, vol. XXVI, no. 2, April 15, 1912.

7 “Auf die deutschen Burschenschaften,” BB, vol. XXVI, no. 6, June 15, 1912, 134.

8 “Ziele der heutigen Burschenschaft,” BB, vol. XIII, no. 11, March 1, 1899, 262; similarly Weinrowsky, Paul, Geschichte der Berliner Burschenschaften Franconia zum 50. Stiftungsfest, 1878–1928 (Berlin: Als MS gedr., 1928), 40Google Scholar.

9 Jarausch, Students, 12; 229; for his conclusions, see 399–416. At times Jarausch moderates his conclusions, “the liberal countertradition did not fail entirely”; Students, 391, see also 387. Jarausch, Konrad, “Illiberalism and Beyond: German History in Search of a Paradigm,” Journal of Modern History 55 (1983): 269, 276CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Stern, Fritz, The Failure of Illiberalism (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1972), xvii, xxiGoogle Scholar. In Dietrich Heither's recent history of the Burschenschaft, he explicitly describes his work as contributing to the Sonderweg debate and showing the way student ritual forms helped to “consolidate völkisch, aggressively militaristic, and radical right beliefs.” Heither, Verbündete Männer, 10, 17.

10 Wehler, Hans-Ulrich, Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte. Von der “Deutschen Doppelrevolution” bis zum Beginn des Ersten Weltkrieges, 1849–1914, vol. 3 (Munich: C. H. Beck, 1995), 471–72, 479Google Scholar.

11 Kocka, Jürgen, “Germany before Hitler: The Debate about the German Sonderweg,” Journal of Contemporary History 23 (1988): 3–16CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wehler, Hans-Ulrich, “Deutsches Bildungsbürgertum in vergleichender Perspektive. Elemente eines ‘Sonderwegs?’” in Bildungsbürgertum im 19. Jahrhundert. Politischer Einfluss und gesellschaftliche Formation, ed. Kocka, Jürgen (Stuttgart: Klett-cotta, 1989), 215–237Google Scholar. For criticism of the special path, see Blackbourn, David and Eley, Geoff, The Peculiarities of German History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), 166–176Google Scholar. For a helpful overview of the debate, see Retallack, James, “Wilhelmine Germany,” in Modern Germany Reconsidered 1870–1945, ed. Martel, Gordon (London: Routledge, 1992), 33–53Google Scholar.

12 Driesman, Heinrich cited by Matthew Jeffries in “Lebensreform: A Middle-Class Antidote to Wilhelminism?,” in Wilhelminism and its Legacies, ed. Eley, Geoff and Retallack, James (New York: Berghahn, 2004), 92Google Scholar; Kerbs, Diethart and Reulecke, Jürgen, eds., Handbuch der deutschen Reformbewegungen, 1880–1933 (Wuppertal: Hammer, 1998)Google Scholar; Repp, Kevin, Reformers, Critics, and the Paths of German Modernity: Anti-politics and the Search for Alternatives, 1890–1914 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

13 Anderson, Margaret L., Practicing Democracy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000)Google Scholar; Sperber, Jonathan, Kaiser's Voters: Electors and Elections in Imperial Germany (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Suval, Stanley, Electoral Politics in Wilhelmine Germany (Chapel Hill, NC: North Carolina University Press, 1985)Google Scholar.

14 James J. Sheehan first noted the importance of liberals in cities; see Sheehan, James J., “Liberalism and the City in Nineteenth-Century Germany,” Past and Present 51 (1971): 116–137CrossRefGoogle Scholar. One of the recent most strongly argued cases for the strength of liberals in the cities is Palmowski, Jan, Urban Liberalism in Imperial Germany: Frankfurt am Main 1866–1914 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Palmowski also provides an excellent overview of debates about German liberalism in his introduction. Steinmetz, George emphasizes the innovative reforms of liberals in Germany's cities beginning in the 1890s in Regulating the Social: The Welfare State and Local Politics in Imperial Germany (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993), 190–193Google Scholar.

15 Thompson, Alastair O., Left Liberals, the State, and Popular Politics in Wilhelmine Germany (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 22, 100, 116–118CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Pohl, Karl Heinrich, “‘Einig,’ ‘kraftvoll,’ ‘machtbewusst.’ Überlegungen zu einer Geschichte des deutschen Liberalismus aus regionaler Perspektive,” Historische Mittelung der Ranke Gesellschaft vii (1994): 63Google Scholar. Tolber, Holger shows the importance of liberals in social reform in Deutscher Liberalismus und Sozialpolitik in der Aera des Wilhelminismus (Husum: Matthiesen, 1999)Google Scholar.

16 Palmowski, Urban Liberalism, 36, 315; Langewiesche, Dieter, Liberalism in Germany, trans. Banerji, Christiane (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), xiiGoogle Scholar; Langewiesche, Dieter, “German Liberalism in the Second Empire,” in In Search of Liberal Germany, ed. Jones, Larry Eugene and Jarausch, Konrad (Oxford: Berg, 1990), 217–237Google Scholar.

17 For the Corps, see Böttger, Handbuch, 217–228; Detlef Grieswelle, “19. Korporationen und Karrieren. Die soziale Rekrutierungsfunktion der Verbindungen,” in Der Burschen Herrlichkeit, ed. H.-H. Brandt and Stickler, 431–442; Jarausch, Students, 248–250; Studier, Manfred, Der Corpsstudent als Idealbild der wilhelminischen Ära (Schernfeld: S-H Verlag, 1990), 41Google Scholar.

18 Wittich, M., “Kann eine Burschenschaft in eine Korps umgewandelt werden?,” BB, vol. XVI, no. 8, Jan. 15, 1902, 187Google Scholar.

19 Especially Heither, Verbündete Männer, 10, 17; Jarausch, Students, 12; McAleer, Kevin, Dueling: The Cult of Honor in Fin-de-Siècle (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994)Google Scholar, chapter 4. Mosse, George L. emphasizes the importance of völkisch attitudes among students, in The Crisis of German Ideology: Intellectual Origins of the Third Reich (New York: Schocken, 1981), 196–199Google Scholar. Marian Kaplan claims that as early as the 1890s, much of university life was “by and large anti-Semitic, espousing an uneven mixture of nationalism, hatred of ‘Jewish’ liberalism, and racism.” Kaplan, Marion, The Making of the Jewish Middle Class: Women, Family, and Identity in Imperial Germany (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), 149, 158Google Scholar. Manfred Studier sees the SC Corps as conservative, elitist, nationalistic, and manifesting little interest in politics; Studier, Der Corpsstudent, 41. For a description of the Union of German Students (Verein deutscher Studenten) as the “precursor of fascism,” see Heither, Dietrich, Gottschaldt, Eva, and Lemling, Michael, “Wegbereiter des Faschismus.” Aus der Geschichte des Vereins Deutscher Studenten (Marburg: Geschichtswerkstatt Marburg, 1992)Google Scholar. Hans-Ulrich Wipf describes the student reform milieu, but relies on Jarausch arguments for his understanding of the political views of the student body as a whole and quotes him approvingly in Studentische Politik und Kulturreform. Geschichte der Freistudenten-Bewegung 1896–1918 (Schwalbach am Taunus: Wochenschau-Verlag, 2004), 29. Norbert Kampe's surveys of anti-Semitism at universities are consistent with the view of students as “illiberal.” Kampe, Norbert, Studenten und “Judenfrage” im deutschen Kaiserreich. Die Entstehung einer akademischen Trägerschicht (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1988)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. In an important recent local study of Tübingen, Martin Biastoch does not see a turn to illiberalism among students. Biastoch, Martin, Tübinger Studenten im Kaiserreich. Eine sozialgeschichtliche Untersuchung (Sigmaringen: Thorbecke, 1996), 230Google Scholar.

20 Gross, Michael, The War against Catholicism. Liberalism and the Anti-Catholic Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Germany (Ann Arbor, MI: Michigan University Press, 2004), 23, 300–301CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Dieter Langewiesche begins his history of liberalism by highlighting that the historians' definitions of liberalism have not been consistent with the history of liberalism; Langewiesche, Liberalism, xii. As early as 1981, Geoff Eley noted that nineteenth-century liberalism should not be evaluated using twentieth-century expectations. Eley, Geoff, “James Sheehan and the German Liberals: A Critical Appreciation,” Central European History 14 (1981): 278–282CrossRefGoogle Scholar; also Langewiesche, Dieter, “The Nature of German Liberalism,” in Modern Germany Reconsidered, ed. Martel, , 97, 101–102Google Scholar; Thompson, Left Liberals, 10–12.

21 Eley, Geoff, Reshaping the German Right: Radical Nationalism and Political Change after Bismarck (Ann Arbor, MI: Michigan University Press, 1980), 200Google Scholar. Chickering, Roger, We Men Who Feel Most German: A Cultural Study of the Pan-German League (Boston: Allen & Unwin, 1984), 302Google Scholar.

22 Repp, Reformers, 17, 104–148.

23 Dickinson, Edward Ross, “Reflections on Feminism and Monism in the Kaiserreich, 1900–1913,” Central European History 34 (2001): 229CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

24 Kurlander, Eric, The Price of Exclusion: Ethnicity, National Identity, and the Decline of German Liberalism 1898–1933 (New York: Berghahn Books, 2006), 2, 7Google Scholar.

25 “All-deutschen Burschenschafter-Tagung,” BB, vol. XII, no. 5, Dec. 1, 1897, 126; Potthoff, Heinz, “Die Gleichheit der Studenten,” BB, vol. XVIII, no. 10, Feb. 15, 1904, 232Google Scholar; “Essen,” BB, vol. XXVIII, no. 6, June 15, 1914, 143; Hünemörder, Christian, Biographisches Lexikon der Deutschen Burschenschaft, vol. I, “Politiker, Teilband 4: M-P” (Heidelberg: Gesellschaft für Burschenschaftliche Geschichtsforschung, 1999), 345–346Google Scholar. Lönnecker, “Die Burschenschaft der Ostmark (BdO),” n.p.

26 To flesh out the perspective that was presented in the Burschenschaftliche Blätter, I consulted the Handbooks of the Burschenschaften, twenty-five histories of Burschenschaft chapters, and the archival records on the Burschenschaft in the Bundesarchiv Koblenz. For my book project on student life and politics in the Wilhelmine era, I also examined records of student organizations at university archives in Berlin, Freiburg, Greifswald, Göttingen, Halle, Heidelberg, Jena, Leipzig, Münster, and Strasbourg. See Heither, Verbündete Männer, 21–38, for an overview of the literature on the Burschenschaft. See also Bohrmann, Hans, Stukturwandel der deutschen Studentenpresse. Studentenpolitik und Studentenzeitschriften 1848–1974 (Munich: Verlag Dokumentation, 1975), 266–68Google Scholar. Between 1910 and 1940 the Burschenschaftliche Historische Kommission published seventeen volumes and six supplements of the project, “Quellen und Darstellungen zur Geschichte der Burschenschaft und der deutschen Einheitsbewegung.” Also the period before 1914 saw the publication of thirty-three volumes from the Burschenschaft Library (Burschenschaftliche Bücherei), which was meant to expand on articles published in the newspaper, the Burschenschaftliche Blätter. Despite the importance of this organization for the history of German nationalism, there has been little work on it, especially for the Wilhelmine era. Exceptions include Heither, et al., eds., Blut und Paukboden, and Heither, Verbündete Männer.

27 “Zur Frauenbewegung,” BB, vol. IX, no. 2, Oct. 15, 1896, 45.

28 Walbrach, Carl, Geschichte der Giessener Burschenschaft Alemannia, 1861–1961 (Giessen: Selbstverlag der GB Alemannia, 1961), 38, 42–43Google Scholar. Engelbrecht, Franz, Burschenschaft Allemannia Berlin 1883–1933 (Berlin: Särchen, 1933), 51Google Scholar.

29 Engelbrecht, Burschenschaft Allemannia Berlin, 36; Wirth, Freiburger Burschenschaft Alemannia, 175–78.

30 Wirth, Freiburger Burschenschaft Alemannia, 167.

31 Hardtwig, , “Die Anfänge der deutschen Burschenschaft,” 587, quoting Walbrach, Carl, ed., Der Giessener Ehrenspiegel. Beiträge zur Geschichte der teutschen Sammtschulen seit den Freiheitskriegen 1813 (Frankfurt am Main: Amtlicher Verlag der Deutschen Burschenschaft, 1927), 57Google Scholar; Robertson, Priscilla, “Students on the Barricades: Germany and Austria, 1848,” Political Science Quarterly 84 (1969): 367–369CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For outstanding coverage of existing literature on the early Burschenschaft, see Lönnecker, “Die Burschenschaft der Ostmark (BdO).”

32 Heither et al., eds., Blut und Paukboden 14–54; Hardtwig, “Die Anfänge der deutschen Burschenschaft,” 581, 587–93, 625; Hardtwig, Wolfgang, “Protestformen und Organisationsstrukturen der deutschen Burschenschaft 1815–1833,” in Demokratische und soziale Protestbewegungen in Mitteleuropa, 1815–1848/49 (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1986), 37–76Google Scholar; P. Brandt, “Von der Urburschenschaft,” 35–53. Gerhard Schäfer also finds völkisch ideas in the early Burschenschaft, “Die frühe Burschenschaftsbewegung,” 14–53.

33 Herman Haupt, “Die Jenaische Burschenschaft von der Zeit ihrer Gründung bis zum Wartburgfeste,” and Haupt, Herman, “Die Verfassungsurkunde der Jenaischen Burschenschaft vom 12. Juni 1815,” both in Quellen und Darstellungen zur Geschichte der Burschenschaft und der deutschen Einheitsbewegung, ed. Haupt, Herman (Heidelberg: Winter, 1910), 18–113Google Scholar. Wetzcke, Geschichte der Deutschen Burschenschaft, 95–206; Bahnson, Karsten, “Vorgeschichte und Gründung des Kösener Senioren-Convents-Verbandes,” in “Wir wollen Männer, wir wollen Taten!” Deutsche Corpsstudenten 1848 bis Heute, ed. Baum, Rolf-Joachim (Berlin: Siedler, 1998), 45–47Google Scholar.

34 Wetzcke, Geschichte der Deutschen Burschenschaft, 206–311; H.-H. Brandt and Stickler, eds., Burschen Herrlichkeit, 41. In Göttingen in 1821 the Burschenschaft Brunsviga had 180 members, about half of all students. Meyer, Julius, “Kurze Bemerkungen über die alte Göttinger Burschenschaft,” Geschichte der Burschenschaften Brunsviga zu Göttingen, 1848–1898 (Göttingen: Klindworth, 1898)Google Scholar; Hardtwig, “Die Anfänge der deutschen Burschenschaft,” 599, 616.

35 Hardtwig, Wolfgang, “Protestformen und Organizationsstrukturen der deutschen Burschenschaft 1815–1833,” Demokratische und soziale Protestbewegungen in Mitteleuropa, 1815–1848/49 (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1986), 41, 50Google Scholar; Lutz, Rolland Ray, “The German Revolutionary Student Movement, 1819–1833,” Central European History 4 (1971): 239–241Google Scholar; Wetzcke, Geschichte der Deutschen Burschenschaft, 311–371; Meinecke, Friedrich, Erlebtes 1862–1901 (Leipzig: Koehler 7 Amelang, 1941), 84Google Scholar; Böttger, Handbuch, 179; Heer, Georg, Geschichte der Deutschen Burschenschaft, vol. 2, Die Demagogenzeit. Von den Karlsbader Beschlüssen bis zum Frankfurter Wachsturm (1820–1833) (Heidelberg: Winter, 1927)Google Scholar; Heer, Georg, Geschichte der Deutschen Burschenschaft, vol. 3, Die Zeit des Progresses. Von 1833 bis 1859 (Heidelberg: Winter, 1929)Google Scholar.

36 “Fünf Antworten,” BB, vol. XXIII, no. 7, July 1, 1909, 168.

37 On the Kaiserreich as the heyday of fraternity life, see Grieswelle, “Korporationen und Karrieren,” 421.

38 With a higher percentage of Burschenschaft men among all students only in Jena, Marburg, Erlangen, and Königsberg, BB, vol. XVI, no. 11, March 1, 1902.

39 Kampe, Studenten und “Judenfrage,” 186–189. Schindler, Thomas, Studentischer Antisemitismus und jüdische Studentenverbindungen, 1880–1933 (Gießen: Studentengeschichtliche Vereinigung des CC, 1988), 54–57Google Scholar; Scheuer, Burschenschaft und Judenfrage; Weil, Bruno, Juden in der deutschen Burschenschaft. Ein Beitrag zum Streit um die konfessionelle Studentenverbindung (Strassburg: Singer, 1905)Google Scholar; Heither, Verbündete Männer, 94–104; Jarausch, Students, 353–54. For an anti-Semitic account of the debate from the perspective of Heidelberg, see Dörr, Franz, Die Burschenschaft Alemannia zu Heidelberg von 1906–1926 (Schopheim: Uehlin, 1926), 104–105Google Scholar.

40 Levy, Richard, The Downfall of the Anti-Semitic Political Parties in Imperial Germany (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1975), 90, 225Google Scholar.

41 Heither et al., eds., Blut und Paukboden, 71; Heither, Verbündete Männer, 85–87. “Der neue Leitplan,” BB, vol. VII, no. 12, Sept. 15, 1893; “Der neue Leitplan der Burschenschaftliche Blätter und unsere Stellung zu demselben,” BB, vol. VIII, no. 1, April 1, 1894, 10; Dietz, E., “Der neue Leitplan der Burschenschaftliche Blätter und unsere Stellung zu demselben,” BB, vol. VIII, no. 2, April 15, 1894, 37Google Scholar; Oppermann, Otto Alexander, Die Burschenschaft Alemannia zu Bonn und ihre Vorläufer. Geschichte einer deutschen Burschenschaft am Rhein. Zweiter Band 1890–1924 (Bonn, 1925), 35–38Google Scholar. Lange, Friedrich, Reines Deutschtum. Grundzüge einer nationalen Weltanschauung (Berlin: Duncker, 1904)Google Scholar. For more on Friedrich Lange, see Eley, Reshaping the German Right, 186–188, 246–247; Hünemörder, Biographisches Lexikon, vol. I, “Politiker, Teilband 3: I-L,” 345–346.

42 Of 6,124 alumni of the Burschenschaften, 790 criticized the resolution, and in 1896, 440 declared that they were ready to leave the Burschenschaften because of it. Heither, Verbündete Männer, 101.

43 “Burschenschaft und Antisemitismus,” BB, vol. VII, no. 9, Feb. 1, 1893, 203–204; Dietz, , “Neue Leitplan der Burschenschaftliche Blätter,” BB, vol. VIII, no. 2, April 15, 1894, 37Google Scholar; “Erwiderung auf das Eingesandt jüdischer Ehre,” BB, vol. IX, no. 1, April 1, 1895, 23; “Nochmals Burschenschaft und Antisemitismus,” BB, vol. VII, no. 10, Feb. 15, 1893, 220–222. Letter from Freymuth, cand. jur., BB, vol. VII, no. 11, March 1, 1893, 246; “Zur Schlichtung,” BB, vol. VII, no. 11, March 1, 1893, 249; “Weitere Bemerkungen Königsberg, 6. März 1893,” BB, vol. VII, no. 12, March 15, 1893, 276.

44 Satori-Neumann, Die Berliner Burschenschaften Germania, 149; this 1912 account follows the wording of the Burschenschaftliche Blätter article, “Die deutsche Burschenschaft und ihre Zeitschrift,” BB, vol. XII, no. 11, March 1, 1898, 277. The Satori-Neumann account also specifically notes that while Jena and Erlangen did not accept Jewish members, Heidelberg, Bonn, and Breslau did. For other objections to the resolution, see “Sitzungs-Bericht. 8.-12. Juni 1897.” For the more anti-Semitic version of the resolution by Germania-Jena, see “Sitzungs-Bericht. 28. Mai 1896.”

45 While there is little evidence that the Burschenschaft directly repudiated its anti-Semitic past, it is hard to find any material in its newspaper that reflects an anti-Semitic perspective. There were some exceptions of articles with anti-Semitic content; see Review of Weil, Bruno, “Juden und Antisemitismus in der Deutschen Burschenschaft,” BB, vol. XIX, no. 12, Sept. 15, 1905, 284Google Scholar; Kleinschmidt, , “Burschenschaft und Tagespresse,” BB, vol. XX, no. 7, Jan. 1, 1906, 152Google Scholar.

46 Some of the many works that emphasize the strength of student anti-Semitism include Mosse, Crisis of German Ideology, 196–199; Hammerstein, Notker, Antisemitismus und die deutschen Universitäten 1871–1933 (Frankfurt: Campus-Verlag, 1995)Google Scholar; Jarausch, Students, 265, 271–274, 292–294, 355–356; Katz, Jacob, From Prejudice to Destruction: Antisemitism, 1700–1939 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980), 260–272Google Scholar; Kampe, Studenten und “Judenfrage”; Kampe, Norbert, “Jews and Antisemites at Universities in Imperial Germany (II), The Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität of Berlin: A Case Study on the Students' Jewish Question,” LBI Yearbook 32 (1987): 58Google Scholar.

47 Kaplan, Marion, “Friendship on the Margins: Jewish Social Relations in Imperial Germany,” Central European History 34 (2001): 473CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Heilbronner, Oded, “The Place of Antisemitism in Modern German History,” Journal of Contemporary History 35 (2000): 559–576CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For my views on student life and anti-Semitism, see (published under my previous name) Swartout, Lisa, “Facing Antisemitism: Jewish Students at German Universities, 1890–1914,” Simon Dubnow Institute Yearbook, ed. Diner, Dan, 2 (2004): 149–165Google Scholar; Swartout, Lisa, “Segregation or Integration? Honor and Masculinity in Jewish Dueling Fraternities,” in Towards Normality? Acculturation and Modern German Jewry, ed. Liedtke, Rainer and Rechter, David (Tübingen: Paul Mohr Verlag, 2003)Google Scholar.

48 “Warum sind die deutschen Burschenschaften Antisemitisch geworden?,” BB, vol. XI, no. 7, Jan. 1, 1897, 176; Winter, Georg, “Wider die Erklärung der Burschenschaft Germania zu Jena,” BB, vol. XI, no. 9, Feb. 1, 1897, 228Google Scholar; “Die Stellung der Corps zu den jetzigen Burschenschaften,” BB, vol. IX, no. 12, Sept. 1, 1895, 327. The linking of anti-Semitism with the turn from liberalism is consistent with Shulamit Volkov's arguments about anti-Semitism as signaling the rejection of a broader liberal ideology. Volkov, Shulamit, “Antisemitism as a Cultural Code,” Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook 23 (1978): 25–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

49 “ADC,” BB, vol. XI, no. 7, Jan. 1, 1897, 185; “Sitzungs-Bericht. 24. bis 28. Mai 1893,” 16; “Alldeutsche Bewegung,” BB, vol. XI, no. 8, July 15, 1897, 208; Burschenschaft Teutonia zu Jena. Verfassung, Geschichte und Mitglieder-Verzeichnis (Jena: Neuenhahn, 1912), 68; Ross, Erhard, Die Burschenschaft Germania zu Königsberg. Festschrift zu ihrem siebzigjährigen Stiftungsfeste (Königsberg: Leopold, 1913), 25Google Scholar.

50 Jarausch, Students, 363; Heither et al., eds., Blut und Paukboden, 68–71.

51 “Die Polenfrage,” BB, vol. IX, no. 8, July 15, 1895, 207; “All-deutsche Bewegung,” BB, vol. XI, no. 8, July 15, 1897, 208; BB, vol. XII, no. 5, Dec. 1, 1897, 126; “All-deutsche Verbandstag in Hamburg,” BB, vol. XIII, no. 12, Sept. 15, 1899, 274–278; “Die Universitäten und technische Hochschulen,” BB, vol. XIII, no. 1, Oct. 1, 1898, 16.

52 “Die deutschen Friedensgesellschaften,” BB, vol. XII, no. 12, March 15, 1898, 317.

53 Südel, Wilhelm, “Zum neuen Jahre,” BB, vol. XVII, no. 7, Jan. 1, 1903, 159Google Scholar. For more on Wilhelm Südel, see Hünemörder, Biographisches Lexikon, vol. I, “Politiker, Teilband 5: R-S,” 566–67. For Jarausch on the rivalry between the Union and Burschenschaft, see Jarausch, Students, 364.

54 Chickering, We Men Who Feel Most German, 68, 213–214.

55 Titze, Hartmut, ed., Das Hochschulstudium in Preußen und Deutschland 1820–1944. Datenhandbuch zur deutschen Bildungsgeschichte (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1987), 26–27, 72Google Scholar. Wehler, Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte, vol. 3, 1214–16; Ringer, Fritz K., Education and Society in Modern Europe (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1979), 39Google Scholar, 54–55, 70–74; Jarausch, Students, 122.

56 “Ziele der heutigen Burschenschaft,” BB, vol. XIII, no. 1, April 1, 1899, 5.

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59 Jarausch, “Illiberalism,” 276; Jarausch, Students, 12; Jarausch, “Liberal Education as Illiberal Socialization,” 620, 624.

60 Wirth, Alfred, “Burschenschaft und Politik,” BB, vol. XXVI, no. 1, April 1, 1912, 5Google Scholar.

61 “Die Burschenschaftertagung in Essen,” BB, vol. XXVIII, no. 3, May 1, 1914, 52–55; Dr.Leonhardt, Hans, “Neue akademische Berufe,” BB, vol. XXVIII, no. 7, Jan. 1, 1914, 159Google Scholar.

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63 Schäfer, “Die frühe Burschenschaftsbewegung,” 51; Böttger, Handbuch, 179, 244; “Weltbürgertum und Nationalstaat,” BB, vol. XXVI, no. 8, Jan. 15, 1912.

64 BB, vol. XIX, no. 5, Dec. 1, 1904.

65 Burschenschaft Teutonia zu Jena, 70.

66 “Allgemeine Studentenausschüsse,” BB, vol. XXVI, no. 6, June 15, 1912, 132; “Die Burschenschaftertagung in Essen,” BB, vol. XXVIII, no. 3, May 1, 1914, 52–55; Weinrowsky, Berliner Burschenschaften Franconia, 46.

67 “Giessen,” BB, vol. XXV, no. 5, June 1, 1911, 125; “Der Verein abstinenter Studenten und die akademischen Trinksitten,” BB, vol. XXVI, no. 4, Nov. 15, 1911, 94; Höhne, Ernst, Die Bubenreuther. Geschichte einer deutschen Burschenschaft (Erlangen: Palm & Enke, 1936), 76Google Scholar.

68 “Zur Duelldebatte,” BB, vol. XVI, no. 10, Feb. 15, 1902, 243; “Zu den Duelldebatten,” BB, vol. XVI, no. 11, March 1, 1902, 268; “Berlin,” BB, vol. XVII, no. 7, July 1, 1903; “Die Bewegung gegen das Duell,” BB, vol. XVI, no. 2, Oct. 15, 1901, 30–32.

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70 Dietz, Heinrich, “Die Schlagermensur de lege ferenda,” BB, vol. XXV, no. 3, May 1, 1911, 59Google Scholar.

71 “Gedrückte Rundschreiben,” BAK BIII Deutsche Burschenschaft ADC/DB May 1911; “Liberalismus und Studentenmensur,” BB, vol. XXVI, no. 12, Sept. 15, 1912, 272. See also Heither, Verbündete Männer, 64, for a discussion of the implications of illegal duels.

72 Ziegler, Theobald, Der Deutsche Student (Leipzig: G. J. Göschen, 1912), 36–37Google Scholar.

73 “Rechtslage des Studierenden,” BB, vol. XXV, no. 3, Nov. 1, 1910, 50–52.

74 “Die Reformbedürftigkeit der Gesetzgebung für Studierende,” BB, vol. XXII, no. 3, Nov. 1, 1908, 61–63; “Berlin,” BB, vol. XVI, no. 9, Feb. 1, 1902, 226; “Studentenrecht,” BB, vol. XXIV, no. 11, March 1, 1910, 254; Böttger, Hugo, “Die Rechtstellung der Studierenden,” BB, vol. XXIV, no. 7, July 1, 1910, 155–156Google Scholar.

75 Alasberg, Fritz, “Persönlichkeit und Masse,” BB, vol. XXII, no. 3, May 1, 1908Google Scholar.

76 Engelbrecht, Burschenschaft Allemannia Berlin, 42.

77 “Berlin,” BB, vol. XVI, no. 9, Feb. 1, 1902, 226; Stern, The Failure of Illiberalism, xvii, xxi.

78 “Zur Frauenbewegung,” BB, vol. IX, no. 2, Oct. 15, 1896, 45.

79 Langguth, A., “Die Frauenfrage,” BB, vol. XIII, no. 5, Dec. 1, 1898, 117Google Scholar. This author, however, also criticized women who dressed like men or who founded dueling clubs.

80 “Zur Frauenbewegung,” BB, vol. IX, no. 2, Oct. 15, 1896, 45; “Die Frauenfrage,” BB, vol. XIII, no. 6, Dec. 15, 1898, 139; “Frauenstudium und Universitätsausdehnung,” BB, vol. XIX, no. 10, Aug. 15, 1905, 223; “Das medizinische Frauenstudium,” BB, vol. XXI, no. 1, April 1, 1907. See also Mazon, Patricia, Gender and the Modern Research University: The Admission of Women to German Higher Education, 1865–1914 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2003), 85–114Google Scholar.

81 “Zur Frauenfrage,” BB, vol. XVII, no. 1, April 1, 1903, 16.

82 “Vom Frauenstudium,” BB, vol. VIII, no. 10, Aug. 15, 1894, 275; “Vom Frauenstudium in Göttingen,” BB, vol. XII, no. 3, May 1, 1898, 60; “München,” BB, vol. XVIII, no. 2, Oct. 15, 1903, 44; “Frauenstudium und Universitätsausdehnung,” BB, vol. XIX, no. 10, Aug. 15, 1905, 223; “Die Frauenfrage,” BB, vol. XIII, no. 8, Jan. 15, 1899, 195–196; “Frauenfrage,” BB, vol. XIII, no. 10, Feb. 15, 1899, 244; “Frauenfrage,” BB, vol. XII, no. 12, March 15, 1899, 294.

83 Alasberg, Friedrich, “Berliner Zession 1910,” BB, vol. XXIV, no. 6, June 15, 1910, 137Google Scholar.

84 “Henry George und die moderne Bodenreform,” BB, vol. XXII, no. 1, April 1, 1908, 10; “Die moderne Bodenreform,” BB, vol. XII, no. 4, May 15, 1908, 84; “Die moderne Bodenreform,” BB, vol. XXII, no. 5, June 1, 1908, 104; “Die moderne Bodenreform,” BB, vol. XXII, no. 6, June 15, 1908; “Bodenreform,” BB, vol. XXIV, no. 12, March 15, 1910, 276–277.

85 “Schmoller über das Maschinenzeitalter,” BB, vol. XVII, no. 8, July 15, 1903, 181; “Das Gönnerwesen in der akademischen Laufbahn,” BB, vol. XX, no. 7, Jan. 1, 1906, 156.

86 Elster, Alexander, “Ernst Abbé, ein Kämpfer und Sieger,” BB, vol. XXIII, no. 9, Feb. 1, 1909, 208Google Scholar; Elster, Alexander, “Ernst Abbé, ein Kämpfer und Sieger II,” BB, vol. XXIII, no. 10, Feb. 15, 1909, 230Google Scholar. See also Repp, Reformers, 249–250; Auerbach, Felix, Ernst Abbé. Sein Leben, sein Wirken, seine Persönlichkeit (Leipzig: Akad. Verl.-Ges., 1918)Google Scholar.

87 “Rudolf Ernst Breitscheid,” Biographisches Lexikon, ed. Hünemörder, vol. I, “Politiker, Teilband 1: A-E,” 134.

88 Letter from the Berlin Burschenschaft 1910, BAK BIII Deutsche Burschenschaft ADC/DB “Rundschreiben 1881–1918.”

89 “Was hält die Studentenschaft von der Parteipolitik?,” BB, vol. XXIV, no. 9, Feb. 1, 1910, 200–202; “Burschenschaft und Corps,” BB, vol. XXV, no. 7, Jan. 1, 1911, 161–162.

90 “Berlin,” BB, vol. XXIV, no. 9, Feb. 1, 1910, 214.

91 “Reichstagswahlen und die Studenten,” BB, vol. XXI, no. 10, Feb. 15, 1907, 232. Members of gymnastics organizations also assisted in elections; see “Burschenschaft und Turnerschaft,” BB, vol. XXI, no. 1, April 1, 1907, 9–10.

92 Weinrowsky, Berliner Burschenschaften Franconia, 37; Schroeter, Bernhard, Leben und Streben dem Vaterland. Die Geschichte der Burschenschaft Germania zu Jena, Teil 1. Kaiserreich, Weimarer Republik und Drittes Reich (Göttingen: Kaiserswerther Diakonie Verlag, 1996), 170Google Scholar.

93 Höhne, Die Bubenreuther, 59; “Fürst Bülow und die deutschen Burschenschaften,” BB, vol. XXIV, no. 3, Nov. 1, 1909, 51.

94 “Badischen Landtagswahlen,” BB, vol. XXIV, no. 4, Nov. 15, 1909, 81. Jarausch, “Illiberalism,” 276; Jarausch, Students, 12.

95 Thompson, Left Liberals, 130. Gross, War against Catholicism, 300–301. Langewiesche, Liberalism, 204, 222. “Burschenschaftliche Bestrebungen,” BB, vol. XXIII, no. 8, Jan. 15, 1909, 3–4; Küster, Konrad, “Die moderne Burschenschaft und die heutige Couleurpolitik,” BB, vol. XXVI, no. 2, April 15, 1912, 27–28Google Scholar.

96 “Ultramontanismus und die freie Forschung,” BB, vol. XVI, no. 6, Dec. 15, 1901, 134.

97 “Ultramontane Überhebung und Studentenschaft,” BB, vol. XXIV, no. 2, Oct. 15, 1909, 34–35.

98 BB, vol. XXIV, no. 8, 1909/10; for statistics from 1901/1902, see BB, vol. XVI, no. 11, March 1, 1902.

99 “Von den Alten Herren,” BB, vol. XXI, no. 9, Feb. 1, 1907, 223–224.

100 “Deutschthum und Polenthum,” BB, vol. XVI, no. 9, Feb. 1, 1902, 224; BB, vol. XIX, no. 8/9, July 15, 1905, 204; “Burschenschaft, Sozialdemokratie und Ultramontanismus,” BB, vol. XXXII, no. 3, Nov. 1, 1907, 58; “Das ultramontane Vereinswesen,” BB, vol. XIX, no. 12, Sept. 15, 1905, 271; “Was hält die Studentenschaft von der Parteipolitik?,” BB, vol. XXIV, no. 9, Feb. 1, 1910, 200–202; “Los von Rom,” BB, vol. XIII, no. 3, May 1, 1899, 63–64.

101 “Studentische Verbände und die Presse,” BB, vol. XXIV, no. 10/11, Aug. 15, 1910, “München,” BB, vol. XVI, no. 7, Jan. 1, 1902, 174.

102 “Wissenschaftlichen Abend,” BB, vol. XVIII, no. 9, Feb. 1, 1904, 209; F. A., “Zurück zum Mittelalter?,” BB, vol. XIX, no. 2, Oct. 15, 1904, 34.

103 “München,” BB, vol. XXV, no. 1, April 1, 1911; “Die neueste Verleumdung Jenas von ultramontaner Seite,” BB, vol. XXV, no. 7, July 1, 1911, 173. On the educated as the “leaders of the people,” see “Materialien zur Reichstagswahl,” BB, vol. XXVI, no. 7, Jan. 1, 1912, 173.

104 Prof.aus Bonn, L. R. Goetz, “Zentrum oder Liberalismus,” BB, vol. XXII, no. 7, July 1, 1908, 150–153Google Scholar; “Bonn,” BB, vol. XXIV, no. 5, Dec. 1, 1909, 101; Mehrmann, Karl, “Die Grundlagen der heutigen auswärtigen Politik,” BB, vol. XXIV, no. 5, Dec. 1, 1909, 101Google Scholar.

105 Däumler, R., “Burschenschaft und freistudentische Bewegung,” BB, vol. XXIII, no. 10, Feb. 15, 1909, 227Google Scholar.

106 Böttger, Handbook, 7. “Die Einschränkung der Verrufsverhältnisse,” BB, vol. XVIII, no. 7, Jan. 1, 1904, 153; “Die Burschenschaftertagung in Essen,” BB, vol. XXVIII, no. 3, May 1, 1914, 52–55; Camerer, J. W., Geschichte der Burschenschaft Germania zu Tübingen 1816–1906 (Tübingen: Bühler, 1909), 215Google Scholar; “Fünf Antworten,” BB, vol. XXIII, no. 7, July 1, 1909, 167.

107 “Burschenschaft und Politik,” BB, vol. XXVI, no. 1, April 1, 1912, 5; “Burschenschaft und Corps,” BB, vol. XXV, no. 7, Jan. 1, 1911, 161–162.

108 HB [Hugo Böttger], “Die Farbenverbindungen im Lichte der Gegenwart,” BB, vol. XVII, no. 9, Aug. 1, 1903, 201Google Scholar.

109 “Aus der Finkenbewegung,” BB, vol. XXI, no. 1, April 1, 1907, 5.

110 “Akademiker-Bund. Eine neue Bewegung,” BB, vol. XXV, no. 3, May 1, 1911, 59.

111 Vaterrodt, Johann Adam, Bericht über das Geschäftsjahr 1911/1912 (Cologne, 1912)Google Scholar. Wipf reports a similar organization, “Akademische Vereinigungen,” emerged in Marburg and Jena. Wipf, Studentische Politik und Kulturreform, 178; “Marburg,” BB, vol. XXV, no. 4, May 15, 1911, 95.

112 “Burschenschaft und Politik,” BB, vol. XXIV, no. 3, May 1, 1910, 51. On similarities between the Free Students and the early Burschenschaft, see Frankfurter Zeitung, Feb. 19, 1911.

113 “Freibund, Burschenschaft, Akademischer Bismarckbund,” BB, vol. XXV, no. 5, Dec. 1, 1910, 112.

114 “Burschenschaft und Politik,” BB, vol. XXIV, no. 3, May 1, 1910, 51. On the importance of discussion evenings, see “Burschenschaft und Bismarckbund,” BB, vol. XXV, no. 9, Feb. 1, 1911, 205; “Die Studenten und die Sozialdemokraten,” BB, vol. XXV, no. 8, Jan. 15, 1911, 175. “Burschenschaft und Politik,” BB, vol. XXVI, no. 1, April 1, 1912, 6. Wirth, Freiburger Burschenschaft Alemannia, 175.

115 d'Oleir, Herbert, “Der Ausbau der Burschenschaftlichen Kränzchen,” BB, vol. XXVIII, no. 1, Oct. 1, 1913, 8Google Scholar.

116 “Student und Politik,” BB, vol. XXV, no. 2, Oct. 15, 1910, 33.

117 Sessler, Adolf, Geschichte der Burschenschaften Brunsviga zu Göttingen, 1848–1898 (Göttingen, 1898), 139Google Scholar. Wirth, Freiburger Burschenschaft Alemannia, 175.

118 Leonhardt, Hans, “Zur Reform der Kränzchen und wissenschaftlichen Abende,” BB, vol. XXVI, no. 4, May 15, 1912, 86Google Scholar.

119 “Burschenschaft und Politik,” BB, vol. XXVI, no. 1, April 1, 1912, 6; Schumann, Ernst, “Vertiefung des Aktivenlebens,” BB, vol. XXIII, no. 8, July 15, 1909, 195–196Google Scholar; “Burschenschaft und Politik,” BB, vol. XII, no. 9, Aug. 1, 1898, 208.

120 See the analysis by the legal council for Göttingen University at Göttingen UA Nr. 692.2 “Die Göttinger Finkenschaft bzw. Freie Studentenschaft, 1912–1919,” July 10, 1913, “Bericht über die Freistudentenschaft.”

121 “Nationale Neutralität der Freistudentenschaft,” BB, vol. XXII, no. 11, March 1, 1908, 260.

122 “Burschenschaft und freisinnig-demokratische Presse,” BB, vol. XXI, no. 6, June 15, 1907, 139; “Freibund, Burschenschaft Akademischer Bismarckbund,” BB, vol. XXV, no. 5, Dec. 1, 1910, 112; “Burschenschaft und Tagespresse,” BB, vol. XX, no. 7, Jan. 1, 1906, 152; “Die Burschenschaftertagung in Essen,” BB, vol. XXVIII, no. 3, May 1, 1914, 52–55.

123 “Wie man studentische Verbindungen bekämpft,” BB, vol. XXVI, no. 2, Oct. 15, 1911, 36.

124 Wipf, Studentische Politik und Kulturreform, “Leipzig,” BB, vol. XXVI, no. 6, June 15, 1912, 146; similar in Strasbourg, “Strassburg,” BB, vol. XXVI, no. 8, July 15, 1912, 195.

125 “Sitzungs-Bericht zu Berlin, 1906,” 38–40.

126 “Breslau,” BB, vol. XXIII, no. 9, Aug. 1, 1909, 234; [Ludwig] Kuhlenbeck, “Die politischen Ergebnisse der Rassenforschung,” BB, vol. XIX, no. 8/9, July 15, 1905, 193; “All-deutscher Verband,” BB, vol. XXIII, no. 12, Sept. 15, 1909, 281.

127 “Das deutsche Reich als Nationalstaat,” BB, vol. XIX, no. 7, Jan. 1, 1905, 152–153; “Burschenschaft und Tagespresse,” BB, vol. XX, no.7, Jan. 1, 1906, 152.

128 “All-deutschen Verband,” BB, vol. XXVII, no. 1, Oct. 1, 1912, 5–6.

129 Lange, Hans, “Germanentum und Slaventum,” BB, vol. XXVIII, no. 8, July 15, 1914, 183Google Scholar; Schneider, Friedrich, “Gobineau,” BB, vol. XXVIII, no. 4, May 15, 1914, 90Google Scholar; “Deutsche Rassenpolitik und die Erziehung zu nationalem Ehrgefühl,” BB, vol. XXIII, no. 10, Feb. 15, 1909, 235. “Sitzungs-Bericht Pfingsten 1910,” 62–71.

130 Konrad Jarausch emphasizes the importance of corporate culture in the creation of an “illiberal” mentality. Jarausch, Students, 244–246, 330–331; Heither, Verbündete Männer, 64–74. On the duel, see Elias, Norbert, The Germans (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996)Google Scholar, chapter 1; Frevert, Ute, Ehrenmänner. Das Duell in der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft (Munich: C. H. Beck, 1991), 134Google Scholar; McAleer, Dueling, 197–209. Hans-Ulrich Wipf stresses the pressure faced by those who chose not to duel in Studentische Politik und Kulturreform, 85. Gay, Peter introduces his book Cultivation of Hatred (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1993)Google Scholar with an in-depth discussion of the duel, 9–33.

131 Paulsen, The German Universities, 371; Hart, James Morgan, German Universities (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1874), 290Google Scholar.

132 “Werbt für die deutsche Flotte!,” BB, vol. XII, no. 1, Oct. 1, 1897, 17; Böttger, Hugo, “Die deutsche Flottenverstärkung,” BB, vol. XX, no. 5, Dec. 1, 1905, 99–102Google Scholar; “Eine studentische Kundgebung für die Flotte,” BB, vol. XX, no. 7, Jan. 1, 1906, 151–152; “Die Entwicklung der deutschen Kriegsflotte,” BB, vol. XXVI, no. 5, June 1, 1912, 112.

133 Dr.Fabricius, , “Wieder einmal. Die Burschenschafter,” BB, vol. XIX, no. 9, Jan. 1, 1903, 300–313Google Scholar; Lüdtke, Franz, “Die lezten Ziele des Polentums,” BB, vol. XXVIII, no. 9, Feb. 1, 1914, 201Google Scholar; “Zur Posener Universitätsfrage,” BB, vol. XXIII, no. 1, Oct. 1, 1908, 3–4; “Warum betreiben wir Kolonialpolitik?,” BB, vol. XXI, no. 2, Oct. 15, 1906, 33–3; Eley, Reshaping the German Right, 68–85, 366. For the differences between the Ostmarkverein and the Pan-Germans, see Eley, Reshaping the German Right, 64–68.

134 For more on the Schulverein, see Walkenhorst, Peter, Nation—Volk—Rasse. Radikaler Nationalismus im Deutschen Kaiserreich 1890–1914 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2007), 64CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

135 “Die Entwicklung der deutschen Kriegsflotte,” BB, vol. XXVI, no. 5, June 1, 1912, 112; “Kritik unserer Kolonialpolitik,” BB, vol. XXI, no. 4, Nov. 15, 1906, 80–82; “Die Reichstagsauflösung und die Kolonialpolitik,” BB, vol. XXI, no. 7, Jan. 1, 1907, 160–165; “Deutsche Kolonialwirtschaft,” BB, vol. XXV, no. 8, Jan. 15, 1911, 180; Mehrmann, Karl, “Die Arrondierung und Konsolidierung der Kolonialreiche,” BB, vol. XXVI, no. 2, Oct. 15, 1911, 34Google Scholar; “Kritische Fragen der heutigen Kolonialpolitik,” BB, vol. XVIII, no. 11, March 1, 1914, 248–50; Böttger, Hugo, “Eingeborenenfrage und Besiedelungspolitik in den deutschen Kolonien,” BB, vol. XXVII, no. 9, Aug. 1, 1914, 210Google Scholar; “Zukunft Kleinasiens als Kolonisationsgebiet,” BB, vol. XIII, no. 5, June 1, 1899, 113. Langewiesche, “German Liberalism,” 227–230.

136 The cartels however, were also built on personal relationships and long-standing social ties. Heer, Geschichte der Deutschen Burschenschaft, vol. 4, 75; Heer, Georg, Die Marburger Burschenschaften Arminia (Marburg: Verein Alter Arminen, 1951), 102Google Scholar; Höhne, Die Bubenreuther, 62.

137 Oppermann, Alemannia zu Bonn, 2, 107.

138 Georg Heer describes the “blaue Richtung” as “Pan-German,” and very loose in comparison to the other cartels. I also find it interesting that the liberal chapter Alemannia in Freiburg was one of the members. Heer, Die Marburger Burschenschaften Arminia. Heer, Geschichte der Deutschen Burschenschaft, vol. 4, 76. It lasted from only 1908 to 1910.

139 Dörr, Die Burschenschaft Alemannia zu Heidelberg, 103–104. The members of Alemannia at Heidelberg were not particularly interested in the debate evenings.

140 Jarausch, Students, 12, 292; Heither et al., eds., Blut und Paukboden, 271–273; Wehler, Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte, vol. 3, 471–72.

141 Anderson, Margaret Lavinia, “A Reply to Berghahn,” Central European History 35 (2002): 90CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Repp, Reformers, 16.