Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t8hqh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-28T17:09:02.333Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Why Paul Nathan Attacked Albert Ballin: The Transatlantic Mass Migration and the Privatization of Prussia's Eastern Border Inspection, 1886–1914

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 March 2010

Tobias Brinkmann
Tobias Brinkmann
Affiliation:
Penn State University
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

Albert Ballin was one of Imperial Germany's most successful business leaders. He early recognized the impact and possibilities of the expansion and integration of global markets. Within little more than a decade after he had joined the management of the Hamburg-Amerikanische-Paketfahrt-Aktien-Gesellschaft (HAPAG) in 1886, he turned an already significant enterprise into the world's largest steamship line. As a leading manager and later as HAPAG director general, Ballin was a major force behind Hamburg's rise to Imperial Germany's second largest city. Due in no small part to HAPAG's spectacular growth, Hamburg emerged as a key global port for passengers and freight by the turn of the century. But Ballin was not just a gifted business leader in a highly innovative economic sector; he also had access to some of the highest figures in Berlin. Ballin repeatedly met with the Kaiser and government members, and he used his long-standing contacts in England on several diplomatic missions to ease rising tensions between the two powers, albeit without lasting success.

Type
Articles
Information
Central European History , Volume 43 , Issue 1 , March 2010 , pp. 47 - 83
Copyright
Copyright © Conference Group for Central European History of the American Historical Association 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Ferguson, Niall, Paper and Iron: Hamburg Business and German Politics in the Era of Inflation 1897–1927 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 38–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

2 Soon after his death, members of his circle published accounts on the rise and tragic fall of the once-influential business titan: Huldermann, Bernhard, Albert Ballin (Oldenburg: Stalling, 1921)Google Scholar; Stubmann, Peter Franz, Ballin. Leben und Werk eines deutschen Reeders (Berlin: Hermann Klemm, 1926)Google Scholar; Stubmann published a slightly revised version of his 1926 biography in 1960: Stubmann, Peter Franz, Mein Feld ist die Welt: Albert Ballin. Sein Leben (Hamburg: Christians, 1960)Google Scholar; Ballin's longtime personal assistant Erich Murken produced a well-researched study of the transatlantic steamship business before 1914: Murken, Erich, Die großen transatlantischen Linienreederei-Verbände, Pools und Interessengemeinschaften bis zum Ausbruch des Weltkrieges. Ihre Entstehung, Organisation und Wirksamkeit (Jena: G. Fischer, 1922)Google Scholar; for the Leo Baeck Institute, founded in 1955 to preserve the legacy of German Jewry, the successful businessman and patriot was an attractive role model: Rosenbaum, Eduard, “Albert Ballin: A Note on the Style of his Economic and Political Activities,” Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook 3 (1958): 257–299CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mosse, Werner E., “Wilhelm II and the Kaiserjuden: A Problematical Encounter,” in The Jewish Response to German Culture: From the Enlightenment to the Second World War, ed. Reinharz, Jehuda and Schatzberg, Walter (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1985), 164–194Google Scholar; Mosse, Werner E., The German-Jewish Economic Elite, 1820–1935: A Socio-Cultural Profile (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989)Google Scholar; Prinz, Arthur, Juden im deutschen Wirtschaftsleben. Soziale und wirtschaftliche Struktur im Wandel 1850–1914 (Tübingen: Siebeck Mohr, 1984), 146–149, 181–182Google Scholar; Mosse, Werner E., “Drei Juden in der Wirtschaft Hamburgs. Heine—Ballin—Warburg,” in Die Juden in Hamburg 1590–1990, ed. Herzig, Arno (Hamburg: Dölling und Galitz, 1991), 431–446Google Scholar; Lamar Cecil's 1967 biography has remained a benchmark study because he took a more detached perspective than his predecessors—he was the first scholar who critically examined HAPAG's business practices in some detail: Cecil, Lamar, Albert Ballin: Business and Politics in Imperial Germany 1888–1918 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; three recent German biographies of Ballin echo the uncritical biographies of the Weimar period rather than Cecil's balanced portrait: Straub, Eberhard, Albert Ballin. Der Reeder des Kaisers (Berlin: Siedler, 2001)Google Scholar; Schölzel, Christian, Albert Ballin (1857–1918). “Ein Schiffsherr ist's: ein Kaiser neigt sich vor dem jüdischen Mann” (Teetz: Hentrich & Hentrich, 2004)Google Scholar; and Wiborg, Susanne, Albert Ballin (Hamburg: Ellert & Richter, 2007)Google Scholar.

3 Conrad, Sebastian, Globalisierung und Nation im Deutschen Kaiserreich (Munich: C. H. Beck, 2006), 206–212Google Scholar; on the business history of HAPAG, see also Ottmüller-Wetzel, Birgit, Auswanderung über Hamburg. Die HAPAG und die Auswanderung nach Nordamerika 1870–1914 (Ph.D. diss., Free University Berlin, Berlin, 1986)Google Scholar.

4 Nathan obituary in Jüdische Rundschau (Berlin), March 18, 1927. See also Feder, Ernst, “Paul Nathan, the Man and his Work,” Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook 3 (1958): 60–80CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

5 1. Geschäftsbericht (1901–1902) des Hilfsvereins der deutschen Juden (Berlin, 1903), 5–11; 11. Geschäftsbericht (1912) des Hilfsvereins der deutschen Juden (Berlin, 1913); in the first two years Eugen Landau served as Hilfsverein president; Simon succeeded him in 1903. On Simon, see Matthes, Olaf, James Simon. Mäzen im Wilhelminischen Zeitalter (Berlin: Borstelmann und Sieben, 1999)Google Scholar.

6 Hyman, Paula, The Jews of Modern France (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1998), 115–135Google Scholar; on the early history of the Hilfsverein, see Vital, David, A People Apart: The Jews in Europe, 1789–1939 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 324–334Google Scholar; on Hamburg, see Liedtke, Rainer, Jewish Welfare in Hamburg and Manchester, c. 1850–1914 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 Cecil, Ballin, 12–14; Straub, Ballin, 15–31; Stubmann, Ballin, 22–23.

8 McKeown, Adam, “Global Migration, 1846–1940,” Journal of World History 15 (2004): 155–190CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hoerder, Dirk, Cultures in Contact: World Migrations in the Second Millennium (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2002)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

9 Zolberg, Aristide R., “The Great Wall Against China: Responses to the First Immigration Crisis, 1885–1925,” in Migration, Migration History, History, ed. Lucassen, Leo and Lucassen, Jan (Berne: Peter Lang, 1997), 291–315Google Scholar; Ngai, Mae M., Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003), 21–56Google Scholar.

10 Herbert, Ulrich, Geschichte der Ausländerpolitik in Deutschland (Munich: C. H. Beck, 2001), 14–44Google Scholar; Gosewinkel, Dieter, Einbürgern und Ausschließen. Die Nationalisierung der Staatsangehörigkeit vom Deutschen Bund bis zur Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2001)Google Scholar; Prussian Minister of the Interior and Prussian Minster of Trade and Commerce to Count Bismarck, July 21, 1885, in Geheimes Staatsarchiv Berlin, Preußisches Ministerium für Handel und Gewerbe, Bestimmungen zum Schutze und zur Fürsorge für die Auswanderung und Kolonisation, XIII, 20, 1 (abbreviated hereafter as Auswanderung und Kolonisation), vol. 13; Karlsberg, Bernhard, History and Importance of the German Control of Emigrants in Transit (Hamburg and Leipzig: Gebrüder Enoch, 1922), 10–44Google Scholar.

11 Ballin to Hamburg Emigration Authority, April 29, 1887; Report, Hanseatic Legation at Berlin [Hanseatische Gesandschaft zu Berlin], Berlin, July 6, 1887, in State Archive Hamburg, Auswanderungsamt I, 373–7 I (abbreviated hereafter as Auswanderungsamt), II E I 1; Karlsberg, German Control of Emigrants, 32.

12 Herbert, Geschichte der Ausländerpolitik, 14–44; Cecil, Ballin, 112–113; Jahresbericht der HAPAG, Achtundfünfzigstes Geschäftsjahr 1904 (Hamburg: Persiehl, 1905).

13 On the background, see Karlsberg, German Control of Emigrants; Just, Michael, Ost- und südosteuropäische Amerikawanderung: 1881–1914. Transitprobleme in Deutschland und Aufnahme in den Vereinigten Staaten (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1988), 23–27Google Scholar; Rogger, Hans, “Tsarist Policy on Jewish Emigration,” Soviet Jewish Affairs 3 (1973): 26–36CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ottmüller-Wetzel, Auswanderung über Hamburg, 99–101; Wertheimer, Jack, Unwelcome Strangers: East European Jews in Imperial Germany (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 75–119Google Scholar.

14 Tichenor, Daniel J., Dividing Lines: The Politics of Immigration Control in America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002), 87–149Google Scholar; Zolberg, Aristide R., A Nation by Design: Immigration Policy in the Fashioning of America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006), 199–242Google Scholar; Spandauer Anzeiger für das Havelland, November 11, 1891; Centralblatt der Bauverwaltung [Berlin], April 8, 1893, no. 14, 142–143; Berlin, Jörg and Schmoock, Matthias, Auswandererhafen Hamburg (Hamburg: Medien-Verlag Schubert, 2000)Google Scholar; Nadell, Pamela Susan, The Journey to America by Steam: The Jews of Eastern Europe in Transition (Columbus, OH: Ohio State University, 1982), 119Google Scholar.

15 Kuznets, Simon, “Immigration of Russian Jews to the United States: Background and Structure,” Perspectives in American History 9 (1975): 35–124Google Scholar; Klier, John D., “Emigration Mania in Late-Imperial Russia: Legend and Reality,” in Patterns of Emigration, 1850–1914, ed. Newman, Aubrey and Massil, Stephen W. (London: Anglo-Jewish Historical Society, 1996), 21–30Google Scholar.

16 Evans, Richard, Death in Hamburg: Society and Politics in the Cholera Years 1830–1910 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), 279–284Google Scholar; Murken, Linienreederei-Verbände, 56–58; Jahresbericht der HAPAG, Siebenundvierzigstes Geschäftsjahr 1893 (Hamburg: Persiehl, 1894); Jahresbericht der HAPAG, Achtundvierzigstes Geschäftsjahr 1894 (Hamburg: Persiehl, 1895).

17 Cecil, Ballin, 40–41; Jahresbericht der HAPAG, Siebenundvierzigstes Geschäftsjahr 1893.

18 Die Welt (Vienna), May 5, 1905 (reprinted from a report in the Korrespondenzblatt des Zentralbüros für jüdische Auswanderungsangelegenheiten, published by the Hilfsverein); Prussian Minister of Trade and Commerce to Provincial Governors (Oberpräsidenten) of East and West Prussia, Silesia, and Posen, August 30, 1893, in Auswanderung und Kolonisation, vol. 15.

19 Petzet, Heinrich Wiegand, 36–40; HAPAG and Lloyd to Count Eulenburg, July 24, 1893, in Auswanderung und Kolonisation, vol. 15; Bericht über die Thätigkeit des Reichskommissars für das Auswanderungswesen während des Jahres 1893, no. 156, Deutscher Reichstag, 9. Legislaturperiode, II. Session 1893/94, in Auswanderung und Kolonisation; Ballin to Senator Dr. Hachmann, May 30, 1894, in Auswanderungsamt, II E I 1a 7; Karlsberg, German Control of Emigrants, 60–69. For a rare and unsettling description of Ruhleben in early 1894 from the perspective of a young Jewish migrant, see Antin, Mary, From Plotzk to Boston (Boston: W. B. Clarke, 1899), 41–43Google Scholar. The first control stations were erected at Bajohren, Eydtkuhnen, Illowo, Prostken, Ottlotschin, Myslowitz, and Ratibor; a few years later, stations were established in Posen, Leipzig, Tilsit, Oderberg, and Ostrowo. Ruhleben was in operation since late 1891, and it remained the only station operated by the Prussian state (through the Prussian railroad company).

20 Annual Report of the Commissioner General of Immigration for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30th 1894 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1894), 17–19. See also Lee, Erika, “Enforcing the Borders: Chinese Exclusion along the U.S. Borders with Canada and Mexico, 1882–1924,” Journal of American History 89 (2002): 54–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

21 For a rare sample of such an identity certificate issued at the control stations, see “Legitimationskarte,” June 14, 1901 (Ratibor), in Auswanderungsamt, II E III P 23; on transmigrants who were detained in Bebra (Hesse) and deported because they had circumvented a control station, see Israelitisches Familienblatt (Hamburg), September 22, 1905; on disinfection facilities of the North German Lloyd in Bremen and the provision of a “Kontrollschein” (proof of control) required for boarding the ship, see Medizinalamt, July 1, 1906, Auswandererüberwachung/Auswandererunterbringung, in Auswanderung, 3-A.4,21-507, vol. 1, State Archive Bremen.

22 Murken, Linienreederei-Verbände, 24–60; the sometimes bitter rivalry between HAPAG and Lloyd cannot be discussed here; see ibid., especially 321–322; for a protest of the Red Star against restrictions its passengers faced on Silesian border crossings, see Red Star (Antwerp) to Royal [Prussian] Government in Oppeln (Upper Silesia), July 27, 1898, in Auswanderung und Kolonisation, vol. 16.

23 Petzet, Heinrich Wiegand, 36–40; Annual Report of the Commissioner General of Immigration 1894, 16.

24 Kiliszewski to Office of Imperial Chancellor, June 10, 1895, in Auswanderungsamt, II E III P 3; Just, Ost- und südosteuropäische Amerikawanderung, 78–79; Ottmüller-Wetzel, Auswanderung über Hamburg, 59.

25 Sthamer, Walter, Die Auswandererhallen in Hamburg (Hamburg: Hamburg-Amerika Linie, 1904)Google Scholar; Cecil, Ballin, 44. For a series of remarkable photographs of the Auswandererhallen, see Hamann, Johann, Mein Feld ist die Welt. Die Hamburger Auswandererhallen in Johann Hamanns Fotographien (1909)—mit einem Text von Ulrich Keller (Cologne: Verlag der Buchhandlung Walter König, 1981)Google Scholar; for a report on unclean hostels in Rotterdam, see Hamburger Echo, November 12, 1912. On Bremen, see the extensive file: Bremer Auswandererhallen (F. Mißler) und Logierhaus Stadt Warschau (1906–1915), in Auswanderung 3-A.4,21-509, State Archive Bremen.

26 Murken, Linienreederei-Verbände, 264–282; New York Times, June 14, September 22, November 13, 1904. For a detailed treatment, see Karlsberg, German Control of Emigrants.

27 Karlsberg, German Control of Emigrants, 115; Die Welt, October 7, 1904; Murken, Linienreederei-Verbände, 264–282; Biermann (German Embassy, St. Petersburg) to Imperial Chancellor (Berlin), June 19, 1906 (attached translated article from Handels- und Industrie Zeitung, St. Petersburg, June 6, 1906), in Auswanderungsamt, II C I 8. On subsidy payments to Cunard, see Davis, Lance Edwin and Huttenback, Robert A., Mammon and the Pursuit of Empire: The Economics of British Imperialism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 76–77Google Scholar. On the Hungarian government's actions, see Overzier, Paul, Der Amerikanisch-Englische Schiffahrtstrust, Morgan-Trust, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung seiner Beziehungen zu den deutschen Dampfschiffahrtsgesellschaften (Berlin: Carl Heymann, 1912), 89Google Scholar; The Times (London), May 16 and June 2, 1904 (Ballin responded to open letters by Lord Inverclyde, the Cunard chairman, referring to reports that Hungarian officials were forcing HAPAG passengers to travel via Fiume with Cunard).

28 Historical Statistics of the United States, Millennial Edition Online, U.S. Immigrants and Emigrants: 1820–1998, Series Ad1-2, http://hsus.cambridge.org/HSUSWeb/toc/tableToc.do?id=Ad1-2 (accessed April 11, 2009). For an argument for not overrating the influence of ticket prices on migration rates, see Keeling, Drew, “Transport Capacity Management and Transatlantic Migration, 1900–1914,” Research in Economic History 25 (2008): 225–283CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

29 Alroey, Gur, “Bureaucracy, Agents, and Swindlers: Hardships Faced by Russian Jewish Emigrants in the Early Twentieth Century,” Studies in Contemporary Jewry 19 (2003): 214–231Google Scholar. On the background, see Klier, John D. and Lambroza, Shlomo, eds., Pogroms: Anti-Jewish Violence in Modern Russian History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992)Google Scholar; and Nathans, Benjamin, Beyond the Pale: The Jewish Encounter with Late Imperial Russia (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2002), 7–13, 187–194CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

30 Wertheimer, Unwelcome Strangers, 143–175; Aschheim, Steven, Brothers and Strangers: The East European Jew in German and German Jewish Consciousness, 1800–1923 (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1982), 32–38Google Scholar.

31 Ottmüller-Wetzel, Auswanderung über Hamburg, 125–129. For an example of a successful intervention by a Jewish aid worker on behalf of Jewish migrants rejected by Prussian officials at Eydtkuhnen in early 1894, see Antin, From Plotzk to Boston, 26–34.

32 Almost every issue of the major Jewish papers carried extensive articles on Jewish “emigration”: Allgemeine Zeitung des Judenthums (Berlin), December 16, 1904; Die Welt, June 17, and September 23, 1904; Bernhard Kahn, “Die jüdische Auswanderung,” Ost und West (Berlin) 1905: 457–492.

33 Allgemeine Zeitung des Judenthums, September 2, 1904; 3. Geschäftsbericht (1904) des Hilfsvereins der Deutschen Juden (Berlin, 1905), 20–31.

34 3. Geschäftsbericht (1904) des Hilfsvereins der Deutschen Juden (Berlin, 1905), 30–35, 41; Allgemeine Zeitung des Judenthums, October 28, 1904, 529; Im Deutschen Reich (Berlin), November 1904, 616–617; Die Welt, November 4, 1904; Israelitisches Familienblatt, October 27, 1904; Berliner Tageblatt, October 27, 1904. On formal recognition of the Hilfsverein at the control stations by Prussia, see Die Welt, May 5, 1905. On conservative attacks against HAPAG as a grain importer, see Cecil, Ballin, 112–113. For quotes by Böckler afterward, see Mosse, Werner E., “Die Juden in Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft,” in Juden im Wilhelminischen Deutschland, 1890–1914, ed. Mosse, Werner E. and Paucker, Arnold (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1976), 57–114Google Scholar, here: 96 (author's translation).

35 Berliner Tageblatt (Berlin), September 27, October 4, 8, and 28, 1904; Vorwärts (Berlin), November 30, 1904; Allgemeine Zeitung des Judenthums, October 7, 1904; see also Karlsberg, German Control of Emigrants, 111–114.

36 Protokoll über die Verhandlungen des Parteitages der Sozialdemokratischen Partei Deutschlands, Abgehalten zu Bremen (Berlin: Vorwärts, 1904), 137 (motion 138), 322–324 (discussion), Liebknecht quote: 323; Wertheimer, Unwelcome Strangers, 40.

37 Halpern, Georg, “Bade bei Ballin,” in Freistatt, Süddeutsche Zeitschrift für Politik, Literatur und Kunst (Munich), October 8, 1904, 812–813Google Scholar. Halpern was an economist who became a prominent Zionist in the 1920s.

38 Stubmann, Mein Feld ist die Welt, 128; Cecil, Ballin, 123–132.

39 Vorwärts (Berlin), August 3, 28, and 30 (quote), September 2, December 1, 1904.

40 Jahresbericht der HAPAG, Achtundfünfzigstes Geschäftsjahr 1904 (Hamburg: Persiehl, 1905).

41 Cecil, Lamar, “Coal for the Fleet that had to Die,” The American Historical Review 69 (1964): 990–1005CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

42 The left-wing attacks mentioned in this article on Ballin were not anti-Semitic (a more detailed analysis remains a desideratum). Anti-Semites attacked Ballin repeatedly; see, for instance, Im Deutschen Reich, August 1899, 443.

43 On rumors of a business deal between the London Rothschild bank and Russia, see Allgemeine Zeitung des Judenthums, October 7, 14, and 28, 1904; Best, Gary Dean, To Free A People: American Jewish Leaders and the Jewish Problem in Eastern Europe, 1880–1914 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1985), 101Google Scholar.

44 Best, To Free A People, 98–113, 146; Cohen, Naomi W., Jacob H. Schiff: A Study in American Jewish Leadership (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1999), 33–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar; 134–137; Endelman, Todd, The Jews of Britain, 1650 to 2000 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2002), 160Google Scholar. For immigrant statistics, see Ruppin, Arthur, Soziologie der Juden (Berlin: Jüdischer Verlag, 1930), vol. 1, 126Google Scholar.

45 Israelitisches Familienblatt, September 29, October 13, 1904; Allgemeine Zeitung des Judenthums, October 7, 1904.

46 Vorwärts, September 3, 1904.

47 Berliner Tageblatt, September 23 and 27, October 4 and 23, 1904.

48 Cecil, “Coal for the Fleet that had to Die,” 996.

49 Berliner Zeitung, October 28, 1904, quoted in a translation in Karlsberg, German Control of Emigrants, 119; Murken, Linienreederei-Verbände, 268–278; New York Times, November 13 and 14, 1904; Karlsberg, German Control of Emigrants, 116–117.

50 Murken, Linienreederei-Verbände, 278–325; German Embassy St. Petersburg (Biermann) to Imperial Chancellor, December 5, 1908, in Auswanderungsamt, II C I 8 (failure of Russian attempts to start a competing passenger service from Libau).

51 Murken, Linienreederei-Verbände, 278–325; Jahresbericht der Hamburg Amerika Linie, Siebenundsechzigstes Geschäftsjahr 1913 (Hamburg: Persiehl, 1914); Reich Minister of the Interior to Prussian Minister of Trade and Commerce, December 10, 1912, in Auswanderung und Kolonisation, vol. 18; Berliner Tageblatt, February 18, 1913; Die königlich bayerische Auswanderer-Kontroll-Station Marktredwitz und der Auswanderer-Durchgangsverkehr durch Bayern (Rotterdam: PTG, 1914?).

52 Stenographische Berichte der Verhandlungen des Deutschen Reichstags, 166. Session, Friday, March 17, 1905, 5328; Vorwärts (Berlin), May 1, 1905.

53 Report by Kiliszewki, November 28, 1907, in Auswanderungsamt, II E I 1b Beiheft 2. See also Berliner Tageblatt, May 27, 1907 (a doctor employed by Lloyd lodged a formal complaint against a police officer who had beaten migrants in Ruhleben).

54 Zolberg, A Nation by Design, 264–267; Yans-McLaughlin, Virginia and Lightman, Marjorie, Ellis Island and the Peopling of America: The Official Guide (New York: The New Press, 1997), 70Google Scholar; Annual Report of the Surgeon General of the Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service of the United States, for the Fiscal Year 1904 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1904), 188–193 (Yokohama, Nagasaki, Kobe, and Shanghai), 217 (Naples and Palermo); Annual Report of the Commissioner General of Immigration 1894, 16.

55 Anthes, Louis, Lawyers and Immigrants, 1870–1940: A Cultural History (Levittown, NY: LFB Scholarly Publishing, 2003), 53–90Google Scholar; Yans-McLaughlin and Lightman, Ellis Island, 70; Hebrew Sheltering and Immigrant Aid Society, Third Annual Report (1911) (New York, 1912), 14–15.

56 Julius Kaliski, “Mit Ballin Unterwegs,” Vorwärts, December 20, 23, and 27, 1904, January 5 and 10, 1905; HAPAG, Abt. Personenverkehr to Kiliszewski, December 12, 1904, in Auswanderungsamt, II E III P 45.

57 Emigrant Conditions in Europe, in 61st Congress, 3rd Session, Senate, Reports of the Immigrant Commission, presented by Mr. Dillingham (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1911), 93–97 (quote, 93); Steerage Conditions, in ibid., 29–31; Schneider, Dorothee, “The United States Government and the Investigation of European Emigration in the Open Door Era,” in Citizenship and Those Who Leave: The Politics of Emigration and Expatriation, ed. Green, Nancy and Weil, François (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2007), 195–210, here 203–204Google Scholar; for a 1911 inspection of the control stations by the U.S. Consul General at Hamburg, R. P. Skinner, see Annual Report of the Surgeon General of the Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service of the United States, for the Fiscal Year 1911 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1912), 99–103.

58 Wertheimer, Unwelcome Strangers, 40–42.

59 Wyman, David S., Paper Walls: America and the Refugee Crisis, 1938–1941 (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1968)Google Scholar; “Paper Walls” already applied in the post-1918 period.