Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t7czq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T20:01:43.388Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Tricuspid valve annular tilt for assessment of pre- and post-intervention right ventricular volume in patients undergoing transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 June 2023

C. D. Reddy Open the ORCID record for C. D. Reddy [Opens in a new window] ,
R. Yokota  and
R. Punn Open the ORCID record for R. Punn [Opens in a new window]
C. D. Reddy*
Affiliation:
Department of Pediatrics, Division of Pediatric Cardiology, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, USA
R. Yokota
Affiliation:
Department of Pediatrics, Division of Pediatric Cardiology, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, USA
R. Punn
Affiliation:
Department of Pediatrics, Division of Pediatric Cardiology, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, USA
*
Corresponding author: C. D. Reddy; Email: [email protected]
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Introduction:

Transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement serves as a successful alternative to surgical replacement of a right ventricle to pulmonary artery conduit. Guidelines for recommending transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement depend on MRI right ventricular volumes, which have been correlated to the echocardiographic measure of right ventricular annular tilt. We aim to assess whether right ventricular annular tilt can be a clinically useful alternative tool in the acute and long-term periods after transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement to assess right ventricular health.

Methods:

We reviewed 70 patients who underwent transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement at a single institution. Echocardiographic measurements were obtained prior to transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement, immediately after transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement, and within 6 months to 1 year after transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement. Right ventricular annular tilt measures the angle of the tricuspid valve plane relative to the mitral valve plane at end-diastole in the apical four-chamber view. Right ventricular fractional area change, right ventricular systolic strain, tissue Doppler velocity, and tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion Z-scores were obtained using published methods.

Results:

Right ventricular annular tilt decreased significantly immediately after transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement (p = 0.0004), and this reduction in right ventricular volume persisted at the mid-term follow-up (p < 0.0001). Fractional area change did not change significantly after transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement while right ventricular global strain improved at mid-term follow-up despite no significant difference immediately after transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement.

Conclusions:

Right ventricular annular tilt decreases both immediately after transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement and at mid-term follow-up. Right ventricular strain also improved after transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement, corresponding to the improved volume load. Right ventricular annular tilt can be considered as an additional echocardiographic factor to assess right ventricular volume and remodeling after transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement.

Keywords

Tetralogypulmonary valveechocardiographycardiac catheterizationannular tilt
Type
Original Article
Information
Cardiology in the Young , Volume 34 , Issue 1 , January 2024 , pp. 171 - 177
Check for updates
Creative Commons
Creative Common License - CCCreative Common License - BY
This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted re-use, distribution and reproduction, provided the original article is properly cited.
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press

In patients with CHD requiring right ventricle to pulmonary artery conduit placement, common complications include right ventricular outflow obstruction as well as pulmonary regurgitation. Chronic stenosis, regurgitation, or a combination of the two can lead to right ventricular dysfunction due to the pressure and volume load. Reference Carvalho, Shinebourne and Busst1,Reference Williams, Quaegebeur and Kirklin2 The haemodynamic effects on the right ventricle can lead to diminished functional capacity, left ventricular dysfunction, as well as arrhythmias. Reference Davlouros, Kilner and Hornung3 Reference Valente, Gauvreau and Assenza–5

Transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement for pulmonary regurgitation and pulmonary stenosis offers a successful alternative to surgical replacement of right ventricle to pulmonary artery conduit. Reference Gillespie, Rome and Levi6,Reference Zahn, Hellenbrand and Lock7 Similar to surgical replacement, transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement improves biventricular function and exercise intolerance, while having the additional benefits of avoiding sternotomies and cardiopulmonary bypass. In addition, recent studies have shown biventricular functional improvement and remodelling both in the early stages as well as at mid-term follow-up. Reference Lunze, Hasan and Gauvreau8–Reference Frigiola, Tsang and Bull12

Guidelines for surgical pulmonary valve replacement in patients with post-operative pulmonary regurgitation are generally based on right ventricular volumes assessed by cardiac MRI. Reference Tretter, Friedberg and Wald13–Reference Valente, Cook and Festa16 Indications for transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement have historically followed the indications for surgical pulmonary valve replacement. Reference Tretter, Friedberg and Wald13 Indexed right ventricular end diastolic volumes > 150 ml/m2 by MRI is one of the factors considered when determining eligibility for transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement. Reference Tretter, Friedberg and Wald13 An elevated right ventricular annular tilt of > 20° has been associated with elevated right ventricular end diastolic volumes > 150 ml/m2 by MRI, compared to right ventricular annular tilts that range from 0.1 ± 9.4° in children with structurally and functionally normal hearts. Reference Punn, Behzadian and Tacy17 The acute and long-term effects of transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement on right ventricular annular tilt have not been assessed. This technique would be clinically useful if echocardiographic measures of right ventricular enlargement and dysfunction could be used to evaluate improvement post transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement, particularly in young patients. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect on right ventricular annular tilt in the immediate and mid-term follow-up periods, with the hypothesis that right ventricular annular tilt would continue to improve over time and serve as a marker of right ventricular global health. A secondary purpose was to investigate other measures of ventricular performance during the same time course.

Methods

Study subjects and design

We retrospectively collected all patients who underwent transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement at Lucile Packard Children’s Hospital at Stanford between January 1, 2011 and January 1, 2017. We included patients with pre- and post-procedural echocardiograms. All pre-procedural echocardiograms were done within 3 months of the transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement, with 75% of the echocardiograms done within the 7 days of the procedure. Pre-intervention echocardiograms were retrospectively compared to immediate post-procedure echocardiograms, as well as to mid-term follow-up (defined as > 1 year and < 2 years after intervention) evaluations. Adults (greater than 18 years of age) and children participated in this study. The indication for transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement was determined to establish subcategories of the entire cohort.

Catheterisation

Patients underwent cardiac catheterisation under general anaesthesia for transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement. Baseline values for right ventricular pressure, peak gradient across the conduit, and mean right atrial pressures were obtained before and after transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement. Melody transcatheter pulmonary valves (Medtronic Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota) or Sapien transcatheter pulmonary valves (Edwards Lifesciences LLC., Irvine, California) were used in all patients. Test occlusion was performed, to ensure no coronary artery encroachment with subsequent device deployment based on size.

Echocardiography

We obtained echocardiograms using commercially available equipment, including the Philips iE33 (Philips Medical Systems, Bothell, WA), Philips Epiq (Philips Medical Systems, Bothell, WA), or the Acuson C512 (Siemens Medical Solutions USA, Mountain View, CA). Offline independent measurements were done using the syngoDynamics workstation (Siemens Medical Solutions USA; syngoDynamics Solutions, Ann Arbor, MI) and followed standard recommendations for image acquisition as recommended by the American Society of Echocardiography. Images were stored in a DICOM format for measurements and for offline speckle-tracking strain analysis by Siemens Velocity Vector Imaging version 3.0.1.15 deformation analysis software (Siemens Medical Solutions USA, Mountain View, CA).

Continuous wave Doppler was used to assess degree of pulmonary stenosis across the right ventricle to pulmonary artery conduit. Degree of pulmonary regurgitation was graded according to the American Society of Echocardiography’s Nomenclature and Standards Committee and the Task Force on Valvular Regurgitation Reference Zoghbi, Enriquez-Sarano and Foster18 and was recorded from the official pre-catheterisation echocardiogram report. Pulsed-wave Doppler was used to evaluate mitral valve inflow E and A waves to calculate the E/A ratio. Tissue Doppler velocities were also used to obtain peak S,’ E,’ and A’ waves. Reference Sluysmans and Colan19,Reference Colan, Parness and Spevak20

Functional measurements of the right and left ventricles were also completed. The right ventricular end-diastolic area and end-systolic area were measured and a fractional area change was calculated. In order the evaluate left ventricular function, left ventricular ejection fraction was calculated using end-diastolic and end-systolic volumes derived from the 5/6 area x length method. Reference Sluysmans and Colan19,Reference Lopez, Colan and Frommelt21–Reference Lang, Badano and Mor-Avi23

The highest quality apical four-chamber view images were identified to perform right ventricular annular tilt measurements and strain measurements (Fig. 1A). Right ventricular annular tilt was determined by measuring the angle of the tricuspid valve plane relative to the mitral valve plane at end-diastole in the apical four-chamber view. Reference Punn, Behzadian and Tacy17 Right ventricular systolic strain measurements were used to assess strain along each right ventricular segment after a user-defined tracing along the endocardial borders (Fig. 1B). These manual tracings were done in the apical four chamber view and were adjusted by the user to ensure adequate endocardial tracking. Deformation measurements were obtained from the pre-intervention, immediately post-intervention, and mid-term post-intervention echocardiograms when available. Images were excluded if the endocardial borders were not visible. All measurements were done by a single physician, blinded to patient and timing of study.

Figure 1. A. apical four chamber view of a study patient with the right ventricular annular tilt technique described in Punn, et al. a line is drawn through the mitral valve hinge points (white). a second line is drawn from the tricuspid valve free wall hinge point to the interventricular septum (yellow). the bisecting angle (), is the right ventricular annular tilt. Figure 1B. apical four chamber view of a study patient with right ventricular global strain tracing on the siemens velocity vector imaging version 3.0.1.15 deformation analysis software (Siemens medical solutions USA).

Statistics

All data are expressed as a mean with standard deviation, or median with range as appropriate. Pre- and immediate post-intervention right ventricular function and strain data were compared with paired t-tests, as well as pre versus mid-term, and immediate post versus mid-term. A subanalysis was completed after stratifying the patients based on primary indication for transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement, namely pulmonary stenosis, regurgitation, or mixed presentation. The statistics package of SAS EG 7.2 (SAS Institute, Cary, NC) was used for statistical analysis. P values ≤ 0.05 were considered to indicate statistical significance.

Results

Study subjects

Seventy patients met diagnostic criteria for inclusion constituted the study cohort (median age 13.2 years; range, 3.1–48.1 years); the group with a primary indication for transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement of pulmonary stenosis included 12 patients, pulmonary regurgitation included 21 patients (Table 1). Thirty-two patients had neither criterion, meaning regurgitation and stenosis were less than severe. Sixty-four patients (91%) underwent transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement with a Melody valve; the remainder received a Sapien valve.

Table 1. Patient demographics (n = 70).

Data are expressed as median (range) or number (percentage).

Outcomes in the entire cohort

Table 2 illustrates the significant differences between measures of right ventricular function before and after transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement. There is an abrupt decrease in right ventricular annular tilt suggestive of decreased volume load on the right ventricle. This change remains significant when comparing the immediate post- transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement group and the mid-term group, indicating a continued improvement. Similarly, the tricuspid valve Z-score also decreases immediately post-transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement though it is not maintained into the mid-term follow-up cohort.

Fractional area change measured normally in the pre- transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement group and remains unchanged both immediately and in the mid-term follow-up period after transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement. In comparison, the left ventricular ejection fraction has an immediate statistically significant increase after transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement, though clinically, the function only increases by 2–3%. This change also appears to be transient as the left ventricular ejection fraction at the mid-term follow-up is similar to the pre-intervention state. Interestingly, global strain is not different between the pre- and immediately post-transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement groups; however, there is a statistical improvement between the pre- and mid-term groups. Tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion Z-score, as an additional measure of right ventricular function was abnormal in the pre, immediately-post, and mid-term-post groups with no significant improvement longitudinally. The S’ wave increase immediately post-intervention neared significance (P = 0.057), but there did not appear to be continued change into the mid-term follow-up period.

Table 2. Comparison of right ventricular function before and after TPVR in the entire cohort.

FAC = fractional area change; LV = left ventricle; N/A = not applicable; RV = right ventricle; RVED = right ventricular end diastolic; TAPSE = tricuspid valve annular plane systolic excursion; TPVR = transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement.

Data are expressed as mean ± SD, P-value is bolded if significant.

Comparison between Adults and Children after transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement

The smaller subset of adult patients undergoing transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement were compared to the paediatric patients before and after transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement. These findings are shown in Tables 3 and 4. There were no significant differences between children and adults in the measures of right ventricular size and function prior to transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement. Immediately post-transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement, both adults and children show a significant difference in the right ventricular annular tilt. The gross values of the right ventricular annular tilt are significantly higher in children. The gross values post-intervention are significantly lower in adults, consistent with a more drastic change after transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement. Children also appeared to show a trend towards a decrease in the right ventricular annular tilt at mid-term follow-up, compared to the adults. However, the immediate post-intervention gross right ventricular annular tilt value was already quite low in the adult population, and there was only a small pool of mid-term follow-up patients.

Table 3. Comparison of right ventricular function in children and adults before and after TPVR.

FAC = fractional area change; LV = left ventricle; N/A = not applicable; RV = right ventricle; RVED = right ventricular end diastolic; TAPSE = tricuspid valve annular plane systolic excursion; TPVR = transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement.

Data are expressed as mean ± SD, P-value is bolded if significant.

Table 4. Comparison of right ventricular function in adults and children before and after TPVR.

RV = right ventricle; TPVR = transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement.

Data are expressed as mean ± SD, P-value is bolded if significant.

Discussion

In this retrospective study, we focussed on right ventricular annular tilt as a marker of right ventricular health in patients after transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement. This study found an abrupt decrease in annular tilt values immediately post intervention, indicating an abrupt decrease in right ventricular size when positioning a competent pulmonary valve. Moreover, the tricuspid valve size decreased and left ventricular ejection fraction increased, presumably from the decrease in right ventricular preload. In addition, we showed that the physiological benefits of decreased right ventricular enlargement were maintained at 1-year post-intervention, since the right ventricular annular tilt, left ventricular ejection fraction, and tricuspid valve Z-score remained similar to the immediate post-intervention values.

Right ventricular enlargement plays an important predictor of morbidity and mortality in patients requiring right ventricular to pulmonary artery conduits. Reference Carvalho, Shinebourne and Busst1 Right ventricular enlargement leads to right ventricular failure, ventricular arrhythmias, and sudden death. Reference Davlouros, Kilner and Hornung3–Reference Valente, Gauvreau and Assenza5 Pulmonary valve replacements have been shown to decrease the progression of right ventricular enlargement, and even have the potential to reduce the enlargement through remodelling. Reference Coats, Khambadkone and Derrick9 Reference Coats, Tsang and Khambadkone–11 Right ventricular annular tilt represents a successful method to recognise increased right ventricular volumes in paediatric patients with tetralogy of Fallot, Reference Punn, Behzadian and Tacy17 but the change in annular tilt pre- and post-transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement or as a progression over time has not been evaluated.

In our study, the indications for pulmonary valve replacement include isolated severe pulmonary stenosis, isolated severe pulmonary regurgitation, both severe stenosis and regurgitation, and a combination of non-severe pulmonary regurgitation and stenosis. Only 12 patients underwent transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement for isolated severe pulmonary stenosis, and as expected, the right ventricular pressure decreases with transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement as noted in the catheterisation data. The rest of the groups all had a component of volume overload due to pulmonary regurgitation. The last group was the most common indication, suggesting that the right ventricle is particularly susceptible to both conditions due to a combined pressure and volume load. The right ventricular annular tilt decreased immediately after intervention, suggesting an extremely effective decrease in right ventricular volume after transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement. This abrupt decrease in volume benefited both adults and children when evaluated separately. The difference between right ventricular annular tilt between the immediately post-transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement group and the mid-term transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement group was nearly significant (P = 0.06) with the mean right ventricular annular tilt in the mid-term follow-up group lower than the immediately-post transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement group. This change may indicate ongoing remodelling, but the sample volume was low for mid-term follow-up.

Other measures associated with increased right ventricular volume, like tricuspid valve size, had similar findings. There was a statistically significant decrease in tricuspid valve size between the pre-intervention and immediate-post transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement group, but no ongoing change between the tricuspid valve Z-score in the immediately-post transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement and mid-term follow-up groups. Notably, the tricuspid valve Z-score was not dilated in the pre-intervention state. Pulmonary valve dysfunction may predominantly contribute to right ventricular body and infundibulum dilation and cause corresponding right ventricular shoulder elevation without as obvious of an impact on tricuspid valve size. Right ventricular annular tilt may therefore be more sensitive to changes in right ventricular volume from pulmonary valve dysfunction than tricuspid valve annular size.

Left ventricular ejection fraction is known to be affected by ventriculo-ventricular interactions. Reference Frigiola, Tsang and Bull12 The left ventricular ejection fraction predictably increased immediately after transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement, but did not increase further by 1 year follow-up. The absolute percentage difference in ejection fraction was notably small and could be due to measurement variability. The lack of difference between left ventricular ejection fraction and tricuspid valve Z-score between the immediate and mid-term follow-up periods may signify that the remodelling is immediate and does not continue, or it may be related to the low number of patients in the mid-term follow-up group.

In order to evaluate other markers of right ventricular performance, we analysed variables that assessed right ventricular function. Prior studies have suggested that fractional area change, tricuspid valve annular plane systolic excursion, tissue Doppler derived velocity, and global strain constitute reasonable methods to estimate right ventricular function. Reference Selly, Iriart and Roubertie24–Reference Brown, McElhinney and Araoz26 Interestingly, there was no significant change in fractional area change between any of the groups, with mean values of all three groups in the normal ranges. Function appears to be relatively preserved in these patients despite the volume and pressure overload. This observation is similar to findings of prior studies looking at both echocardiographic and MRI measures of right ventricular function Reference Lurz, Nordmeyer and Giardini27 pre- and post-transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement.

Tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion Z-scores were stably abnormal in the pre-, immediately-post-, and mid-term groups. Tricuspid valve annular plane systolic excursion measures longitudinal motion of the right ventricular body and has been reported at lower values in patients with tetralogy of Fallot than other forms of non-CHD. Reference Mercer-Rosa, Parnell and Forfia28,Reference Bonnemains, Stos and Vaugrenard29 Moreover, prior studies have demonstrated that tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion may not correlate well with assessment of function in tetralogy of Fallot, Reference Mercer-Rosa, Parnell and Forfia28,Reference Koestenberger, Nagel and Ravekes30 perhaps explaining why the values are abnormal while the fractional area change values are normal throughout the study period. Tricuspid annular S’ velocity similarly measures right ventricular longitudinal motion to assess function. The tricuspid annular S’ velocity significantly increased between pre- and immediately-post transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement. These results suggest that there may be subtle improvements in right ventricular function over time that are at least maintained at 1-year post- transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement.

Global right ventricular strain on two-dimensional echocardiographic images has been shown to correlate to right ventricular ejection fraction by MRI, Reference Lee and Park31 and multiple studies have shown that global longitudinal strain detects subtle decreases in ventricular function that are not appreciated by conventional measures. Reference Adamson, Arunamata and Tacy32–Reference Lowenthal, Tacy and Behzadian34 Our results indicated no difference prior to intervention and immediately after intervention; however, right ventricular stain significantly improved between the pre-intervention group and the mid-term follow-up group. Tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion and S’ wave both utilise the longitudinal motion of the right ventricular shoulder and ignore the apex, Reference Mercer-Rosa, Parnell and Forfia28,Reference Bao, Zhang and Chen35 which may make these measures more susceptible to volumetric changes, thereby resulting in an immediate change post-transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement. In contrast, the improvement in right ventricular global strain at mid-term follow-up rather than immediately post-intervention suggests that right ventricular global strain may be less impacted by sudden volume shifts and instead indicate predictably slower right ventricular remodelling.

Limitations and Future Directions

The retrospective nature of the data limits this current study. There is a lack of prospective studies that confirm and correlate the various echocardiographic measures of right ventricular health to MRI and catheterisation-based assessments. In addition, the adult population only made up a small proportion of our total cohort. Thus, the lack of difference between the adult and paediatric patients may represent a Type I error. Lastly, mid-term follow-up data was challenging to obtain, particularly for the adults, due to many of our patients undergoing procedures at our institution and having their general cardiology maintenance at outside centres. While there was a significant immediate decrease to low right ventricular annular tilt post-intervention, it is unclear whether this change was sustained because it had already reached maximal improvement or whether there was insufficient data to assess ongoing decrease in right ventricular annular tilt. Thus, we need prospective studies with larger sample sizes and longer follow-up that may better illustrate the subtle changes in right ventricular remodelling that occur later.

Conclusions

Right ventricular annular tilt appropriately decreases after successful transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement, indicating a decrease in right ventricular volume. In addition, our findings indicate that right ventricular annular tilt correlates with other findings of right ventricular health both in the immediate and mid-term follow-up groups. Right ventricular annular tilt is feasible to incorporate in to the workflow to assess right ventricular volume and has previously been shown to have low interobserver variability. Reference Punn, Behzadian and Tacy17 Right ventricular annular tilt is a simple method to estimate right ventricular volume and also track changes in right ventricular enlargement over time.

Author contribution

Charitha Reddy: Concept/Design, Data Collection, Data Analysis/Interpretation, Drafting Article, Statistics.

Rumi Yokota: Data Collection, Data Analysis, Approval of Article.

Rajesh Punn: Data Analysis/Interpretation, Statistics, Critical Revision of Article, Statistics, Approval of Article.

Financial support

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Competing interests

None.

References

Carvalho, JS, Shinebourne, EA, Busst, C, et al. Exercise capacity after complete repair of tetralogy of Fallot: deleterious effects of residual pulmonary regurgitation. Br Heart J 1992; 67: 470–473.10.1136/hrt.67.6.470CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, WG, Quaegebeur, JM, Kirklin, JW, et al. Outflow obstruction after the arterial switch operation: a multiinstitutional study. Congenital heart surgeons society. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1997; 114: 975–87.10.1016/S0022-5223(97)70012-6CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davlouros, PA, Kilner, PJ, Hornung, TS, et al. Right ventricular function in adults with repaired tetralogy of Fallot assessed with cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging: detrimental role of right ventricular outflow aneurysms or akinesia and adverse right-to-left ventricular interaction. J Am Coll Cardiol 2002; 40: 2044–2052.10.1016/S0735-1097(02)02566-4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gatzoulis, MA, Balaji, S, Webber, SA, et al. Risk factors for arrhythmia and sudden cardiac death late after repair of tetralogy of Fallot: a multicentre study. Lancet 2000; 356: 975–981.10.1016/S0140-6736(00)02714-8CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Valente, AM, Gauvreau, K, Assenza, GE, et al. Contemporary predictors of death and sustained ventricular tachycardia in patients with repaired tetralogy of Fallot enrolled in the INDICATOR cohort. Heart 2014; 100: 247–253.10.1136/heartjnl-2013-304958CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gillespie, MJ, Rome, JJ, Levi, DS, et al. Melody valve implant within failed bioprosthetic valves in the pulmonary position: a multicenter experience. Circ Cardiovasc Interv 2012; 5: 862–870.10.1161/CIRCINTERVENTIONS.112.972216CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zahn, EM, Hellenbrand, WE, Lock, JE, et al. Implantation of the melody transcatheter pulmonary valve in patients with a dysfunctional right ventricular outflow tract conduit early results from the U.S. clinical trial. J Am Coll Cardiol 2009; 54: 1722–1729.10.1016/j.jacc.2009.06.034CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lunze, FI, Hasan, BS, Gauvreau, K, et al. Progressive intermediate-term improvement in ventricular and atrioventricular interaction after transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement in patients with right ventricular outflow tract obstruction. Am Heart J 2016; 179: 87–98.10.1016/j.ahj.2016.05.011CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coats, L, Khambadkone, S, Derrick, G, et al. Physiological consequences of percutaneous pulmonary valve implantation: the different behaviour of volume- and pressure-overloaded ventricles. Eur Heart J 2007; 28: 1886–1893.10.1093/eurheartj/ehm181CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coats, L, Khambadkone, S, Derrick, G, et al. Physiological and clinical consequences of relief of right ventricular outflow tract obstruction late after repair of congenital heart defects. Circulation 2006; 113: 2037–2044.10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.591438CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coats, L, Tsang, V, Khambadkone, S, et al. The potential impact of percutaneous pulmonary valve stent implantation on right ventricular outflow tract re-intervention. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2005; 27: 536–543.10.1016/j.ejcts.2004.12.053CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frigiola, A, Tsang, V, Bull, C, et al. Biventricular response after pulmonary valve replacement for right ventricular outflow tract dysfunction: is age a predictor of outcome? Circulation. Circulation 2008; 118: S182–S190.10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.756825CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tretter, JT, Friedberg, MK, Wald, RM, et al. Defining and refining indications for transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement in patients with repaired tetralogy of Fallot: contributions from anatomical and functional imaging. Int J Cardiol 2016; 221: 916–925.10.1016/j.ijcard.2016.07.120CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geva, T. Is MRI the preferred method for evaluating right ventricular size and function in patients with congenital heart disease?: MRI is the preferred method for evaluating right ventricular size and function in patients with congenital heart disease. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging 2014; 7: 190–197.10.1161/CIRCIMAGING.113.000553CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geva, T. Repaired tetralogy of fallot: the roles of cardiovascular magnetic resonance in evaluating pathophysiology and for pulmonary valve replacement decision support. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson 2011; 13: 9.10.1186/1532-429X-13-9CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Valente, AM, Cook, S, Festa, P, et al. Multimodality imaging guidelines for patients with repaired tetralogy of fallot: a report from the AmericanSsociety of echocardiography: developed in collaboration with the society for cardiovascular magnetic resonance and the society for pediatric radiology. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2014; 27: 111–141.10.1016/j.echo.2013.11.009CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Punn, R, Behzadian, F, Tacy, TA. Annular tilt as a screening test for right ventricular enlargement in patients with tetralogy of fallot. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2010; 23: 1297–1302.10.1016/j.echo.2010.09.002CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zoghbi, WA, Enriquez-Sarano, M, Foster, E, et al. Recommendations for evaluation of the severity of native valvular regurgitation with two-dimensional and Doppler echocardiography. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2003; 16: 777–802.10.1016/S0894-7317(03)00335-3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sluysmans, T, Colan, SD. Theoretical and empirical derivation of cardiovascular allometric relationships in children. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2005; 99: 445–457.10.1152/japplphysiol.01144.2004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Colan, SD, Parness, IA, Spevak, PJ, et al. Developmental modulation of myocardial mechanics: age- and growth-related alterations in afterload and contractility. J Am Coll Cardiol 1992; 19: 619–629.10.1016/S0735-1097(10)80282-7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lopez, L, Colan, SD, Frommelt, PC, et al. Recommendations for quantification methods during the performance of a pediatric echocardiogram: a report from the pediatric measurements writing group of the American society of echocardiography pediatric and congenital heart disease council. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2010; 23: 465–95; quiz 576-7.10.1016/j.echo.2010.03.019CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lang, RM, Bierig, M, Devereux, RB, et al. Recommendations for chamber quantification: a report from the American society of echocardiography’s guidelines and standards committee and the chamber quantification writing group, developed in conjunction with the European association of echocardiography, a branch of the European society of cardiology. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2005; 18: 1440–1463.10.1016/j.echo.2005.10.005CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lang, RM, Badano, LP, Mor-Avi, V, et al. Recommendations for cardiac chamber quantification by echocardiography in adults: an update from the American society of echocardiography and the European association of cardiovascular imaging. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging 2015; 16: 233–270.10.1093/ehjci/jev014CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Selly, JB, Iriart, X, Roubertie, F, et al. Multivariable assessment of the right ventricle by echocardiography in patients with repaired tetralogy of Fallot undergoing pulmonary valve replacement: a comparative study with magnetic resonance imaging. Arch Cardiovasc Dis 2015; 108: 5–15.10.1016/j.acvd.2014.07.054CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, Y, Xie, M, Wang, X, et al. Impaired right and left ventricular function in asymptomatic children with repaired tetralogy of Fallot by two-dimensional speckle tracking echocardiography study. Echocardiography 2015; 32: 135–143.10.1111/echo.12581CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, DW, McElhinney, DB, Araoz, PA, et al. Reliability and accuracy of echocardiographic right heart evaluation in the U.S. melody valve investigational trial. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2012; 25: 383–392 e4.10.1016/j.echo.2011.12.022CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lurz, P, Nordmeyer, J, Giardini, A, et al. Early versus late functional outcome after successful percutaneous pulmonary valve implantation: are the acute effects of altered right ventricular loading all we can expect? J Am Coll Cardiol 2011; 57: 724–731.10.1016/j.jacc.2010.07.056CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mercer-Rosa, L, Parnell, A, Forfia, PR, et al. Tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion in the assessment of right ventricular function in children and adolescents after repair of tetralogy of Fallot. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2013; 26: 1322–1329.10.1016/j.echo.2013.06.022CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bonnemains, L, Stos, B, Vaugrenard, T, et al. Echocardiographic right ventricle longitudinal contraction indices cannot predict ejection fraction in post-operative Fallot children. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging 2012; 13: 235–242.10.1093/ejechocard/jer263CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koestenberger, M, Nagel, B, Ravekes, W, et al. Systolic right ventricular function in pediatric and adolescent patients with tetralogy of Fallot: echocardiography versus magnetic resonance imaging. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2011; 24: 45–52.10.1016/j.echo.2010.10.001CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, JH, Park, JH. Strain analysis of the right ventricle using two-dimensional echocardiography. J Cardiovasc Imaging 2018; 26: 111–124.10.4250/jcvi.2018.26.e11CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adamson, GT, Arunamata, A, Tacy, TA, et al. Postoperative recovery of left ventricular function following repair of large ventricular septal defects in infants. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2020; 33(3): 368–377.10.1016/j.echo.2019.10.003CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arunamata, A, Stringer, J, Balasubramanian, S, et al. Cardiac segmental strain analysis in pediatric left ventricular noncompaction cardiomyopathy. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2019; 32: 763–773 e1.10.1016/j.echo.2019.01.014CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lowenthal, A, Tacy, TA, Behzadian, F, et al. Echocardiographic predictors of early postsurgical myocardial dysfunction in pediatric patients with aortic valve insufficiency. Pediatr Cardiol 2013; 34: 1335–1343.10.1007/s00246-013-0646-zCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bao, SF, Zhang, YQ, Chen, LJ, et al. Assessment of right ventricular systolic function in children with repaired tetralogy of Fallot by multiple-view from single acoustic window with speckle tracking echocardiography. Echocardiography 2019; 36: 133–141.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Figure 0

Figure 1. A. apical four chamber view of a study patient with the right ventricular annular tilt technique described in Punn, et al. a line is drawn through the mitral valve hinge points (white). a second line is drawn from the tricuspid valve free wall hinge point to the interventricular septum (yellow). the bisecting angle (), is the right ventricular annular tilt. Figure 1B. apical four chamber view of a study patient with right ventricular global strain tracing on the siemens velocity vector imaging version 3.0.1.15 deformation analysis software (Siemens medical solutions USA).

Figure 1

Table 1. Patient demographics (n = 70).

Figure 2

Table 2. Comparison of right ventricular function before and after TPVR in the entire cohort.

Figure 3

Table 3. Comparison of right ventricular function in children and adults before and after TPVR.

Figure 4

Table 4. Comparison of right ventricular function in adults and children before and after TPVR.