¹ This term was introduced by Bentham, , Principles of Morals and Legislation, ch. 7, s. XXV, note 1 (1780)Google Scholar: “The word international, it must be acknowledged, is a new one, though it is hoped, sufficiently analogous and intelligible. It is calculated to express, in a more significant way, the branch of law which commonly goes under the name of the law of nations…”

² This term originated in Roman law, Gaius, , Institutes, 1:1 Google Scholar; Justinian, , Codex, 1: 1.Google Scholar See also, Vitoria, , De Indis Recenter Inventis, 1565 Google Scholar (lectures delivered 1532), S. III, Prob, 1, “quod naturalis ratio inter gentes constituit, vocatur ius gentium”; Suarez, , Tractatus De Legibus, ac Deo Legislatore, Lib. II, cap. XVII-XIX (1612).Google Scholar

³ Zouche, , Juris et Judicii Fecialis sive Juris inter Gentes explicatio (1650)Google Scholar, Pars Prima, “De lure inter Gentes, et de Iure Pacis.”

⁴ As late as the end of the nineteenth century, Lorimer — whose Institutes of the Law of Nations was published in 1883 — held the title of Regius Professor of Public Law and of the Law of Nature and Nations in the University of Edinburgh.

⁵ Op. cit. note 2, Sect. II, Prob.7.

⁶ Op. cit. note 2, Lib. II, cap. XIX, s. 9 (Eng. tr. in Carnegie ed. entitled Selections from Three Works 348–49 (1944)).

⁷ De Officio Humanis et Civis juxta Legem Naturalem, Lib. I, cap. III, ss. 10, 11 (1682).

⁸ Ibid., s. 12 (Carnegie tr., 20 (1927).

⁹ De Jure Naturae et Gentium, Lib. II, cap. III, s. 23 (1688).

¹⁰ Jus Gentium Methode Scientifica, Praefatio (1764) (Carnegie tr., 6 (1934)).

¹¹ Ibid., Prolegomena, s. 13.

¹² Ibid., s. 11 (tr. 13).

¹³ Ibid., s. 13 (tr. 14).

¹⁴ De Jure Belli ac Pacis, Lib. I, cap. I, s. xiv (1625) (Carnegie tr., 44 (1925)).

¹⁵ De Jure Belli, Lib. I, cap. I, ss. 10–13 (1612) (Carnegie tr. 7–9 (1933) ).

¹⁶ Lectionum et Epistolarum quae ad lus Civile pertinat 155 (1583–84): “quare et vocatum sit ius gentium, quasi quo iure gentes omnes solaeque utantur; nec enim sunt, quae non utuntur: et aliae non utuntur animentes; et non gentes singulae tamquam proprio singularum, sed tamquam omnium communi coutuntur.”

¹⁷ See Keen, , The Laws of War in the Middle Ages ch. 3 (1965)Google Scholar; Draper, , “The Intervention of Christianity and Chivalry in the Historical Development of the Law of War,” Int’l Rev. of Red X, 3 (1965)Google Scholar; Gardot, , “Le Droit de la Guerre dans l’Oeuvre des Capitaines Français du XVIe Siècle,” 72 Hague Recueil 397 (1948)Google Scholar; Contamine, War in the Middle Ages 284–92 (1984)

¹⁸ IV: 7.

¹⁹ Promulgated by President Lincoln as General Orders No. 100, Apr. 24, 1863 ( Schindler, and Toman, , The Laws of Armed Conflicts 3 (1981).Google Scholar

²⁰ Arts. 4, 11, 13, 14, 58.

²¹ Arts. 40, 67.

²² Feb. 19, 1847, Art. 7 (cf. Baxter, , “The First Modem Codification of the Law of War: Francis Lieber and General Orders No. 100,” 3 Int’l Rev. of the Red X 171, 187 (1963).Google Scholar

²³ Holland, , The Laws of War 72–73 (1908).Google Scholar

²⁴ Annex to Convention IV respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land (Schindler and Toman, op. cit. supra note 19, at 57).

²⁵ Judgment. H.M.S.O., Cmd. 6964, at 65 (1946); 41 Am. J. Int’l L. 177, 248-49 (1947). See also, Tokyo Judgment (1948) 13 Ann. Dig., 356, 365–66.

²⁶ Lauterpacht, , “Rules of Warfare in an Unlawful War,” in Lipsky, , Law and Politics in the World Community 89, 113 (1953).Google Scholar

²⁷ See Levie, , Protection of War Victims (1979–81)Google Scholar; Bothe, , Partsch, , and Solf, , New Rules for Victims of Armed Conflicts (1982).Google Scholar

²⁸ See, e.g., Protocol I, Schindler and Toman, op. cit. supra note 19, at 551, Arts. 1(4), 44(3).

²⁹ Furet, , Martinez, , and Dorandeu, , La Guerre et le droit 117 (1979)Google Scholar (italics in original ).

³⁰ See, e.g., Green, , “‘Civilized’ Law and ‘Primitive’ Peoples” in Law and Society 99–100 (1975)Google Scholar

³¹ See Walton v. Arab American Oil Co., 233 F.2d 541, 545 (1956), in which the 2nd Circuit Court refused to consider Saudi Arabia as “uncivilized.”

³² 8 Int’l Legal Materials (I.L.M.) 679 (1969).

³³ The similar provision with regard to jus cogens adopted by the Int’l Law Comm. in relation to state responsibility in the criminal field is of no real help; see Green, , “New Trends in International Criminal Law,” 11 Israel Y.B. Human Rights 9, 26–27 (1981).Google Scholar

³⁴ Kartashkin, , “The Marxist-Leninist Approach: The Theory of Class Struggle and Contemporary International Law,” in Macdonald, and Johnston, , The Structure and Process of International Law 79, 85 (1983).Google Scholar

³⁵ 6 I.L.M. 363 (1967).

³⁶ 21 I.L.M. 1261 (1982).

³⁷ Kartashkin, supra note 34, at 88.

³⁸ (1981) 62 Int’l Law Reports, 108, 114–15, 125.

³⁹ Case Concerning the Continental Shelf (Tunis/Libya), [1982] I.C.J. Rep. 18, 38.

⁴⁰ “The So-called Anglo-American and Continental Schools of Thought in International Law,” 12 B.Y.I.L. 31 ( 1931 ) (reprinted in 2 Collected Papers 452 (1975)).

⁴¹ [1950] I.C.J. Rep. 266, 293–94 (italics in original). Judge Read, also dissenting, criticized the use of the word “American,” emphasizing that it did not apply universally throughout the two continents.

⁴² Some of the colonies are now independent and have joined the Organization of American States and have adopted, or will adopt some principles of this so-called American international law.

⁴³ This “law” is now more commonly known as Asian-African international law as promulgated by the Asian-African Consultative Legal Committee.

⁴⁴ See supra notes 32, 33.

⁴⁵ [1969] I.C.J. Rep. 3) 38–39.

⁴⁶ Doc. A/AC 138/SC II/SR 31 (1973) 13 — Indonesia went so far as to assert that “the three-mile limit… had never been a rule of international law since a general international convention providing for it had never been accepted by all States and since it had never been practised by all States.” See, however, Swartztrauber, The Three-Mile Limit of Territorial Sea

⁴⁷ Doc. A/AC 138/SC II/SR 67 (1973) 15.

⁴⁸ Apr. 7, 1970, I.C.J. Yearbook 1983-84, at 60. This Canadian reservation was revoked on Sept 10, 1985.

⁴⁹ Press Conf., Apr. 18, 1970, 9 I.L.M. 600, 602–4 (1970) (italics added). See also, to same effect, statement by Equatorial Guinea during UNCLOS debates, Official Records, I, 145, 35th plenary meeting.

⁵⁰ Canada, H.C. Debates, Oct. 24, 1969, at 38-39 (italics added).

⁵¹ “Revolutionary Nations and the Quality of International Legal Order,” in Kaplan, , The Revolution in World Politics 310, 311 (1962).Google Scholar

⁵² See, e.g., Erickson, , International Law and the Revolutionary State: A Case Study of the Soviet Union and Customary International Law (1972).Google Scholar

⁵³ Korovin, E. g., Sovremennoe mezhdunaradnoe publichnoe pravo (Present-Day International Law) 8 (1928)Google Scholar (Erickson, op. cit., 4).

⁵⁴ Ushakov, , “International Law and Society,” in Contemporary International Law (Moscow, 1969)Google Scholar, cf. Pinto, , “Modern Conference Techniques: Social, Psychological and Anthropological,“ in Macdonald, and Johnston, , op. cit. supra note 34, at 305, 306.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ Theory of International Law 35, note 35 (1974), (rejecting comments by McWhinney).

⁵⁶ de Visscher, , Theory and Reality in Public International Law 162 (1968)Google Scholar (de Visscher’s later version of this extract by Corbett appears in the 4th French edition, Théories et réalités en droit public international 174–78 (1970)).

⁵⁷ See, e.g., supra notes 46–49.

⁵⁸ Galvez, , “The Future of Regionalism in an Asymmetrical International Society,” in Macdonald, and Johnston, , op. cit. supra note 34, at 661, 663–64.Google Scholar

⁵⁹ (1958), 498

⁶⁰ Schachter, , “The Nature and Process of Legal Development in International Society,” in Macdonald, and Johnston, , op. cit. supra note 34, at 745, 751Google Scholar( italics in original ).

⁶¹ Galvez, supra note 58, at 665.

⁶² Case Concerning Diplomatic and Consular Personnel in Tehran, [1979] I.C.J. Rep. 7, [1980] I.C.J. Rep. 3. See, e.g., Green, , “The Tehran Embassy Incident: Legal Aspects,” 19 Archiv des Völkerrechts 1 (1980)Google Scholar; Janis, , “The Role of the International Court in the Hostages Crisis,” 13 Conn. Law Rev. 262 (1981)Google Scholar; Gordon, and Youngblood, , “The Role of the International Court in the Hostages Crisis: A Rejoinder,” ibid., 429.Google Scholar

⁶³ See Green, “The Rule of Law and the Use of Force: Falklands and Grenada,” in Proceedings of 1984 Conf. of Canadian Council on International Law; Moore, , Law and the Grenada Mission (1984)Google Scholar; A.B.A. Section of International Law, Report of the Committee on Grenada (1984); Schachter, , “The Legality of Pro-Democratic Invasion,” 78 Am. J. Int’l L. 645 (1984)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, Schachter, , “The Right of States to Use Armed Force,” 82 Mich. Law Rev. 1620 (1984).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁶⁴ 24 I.L.M. 246–63 (1985).

⁶⁵ [1984] I.C.J. Rep. 392.

⁶⁶ Gross, , “Sources of Universal International Law,” in 1 Essays on International Law and Organization 139 (1984).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁶⁷ Gen. Ass. Res. 3201 (S-VI).

⁶⁸ Res. 3281 (XIX).

⁶⁹ (1957) 298 UNTS 11; Treaty of Accession 1972, Cmnd. 4862.

⁷⁰ (1955) 213 UNTS 222.

⁷¹ Petersmann, , “International Economic Theory and Economic International Law: On the Tasks of a Legal Theory on International Economic Order,” in Macdonald, and Johnston, , op. cit. supra note 34, at 227, 241.Google Scholar

⁷² Ibid., 256.

⁷³ Res. 217 (III) Α.

⁷⁴ Res 2200 (XXI) Annex.

⁷⁵ Final Act, 1975, “Cooperation in Humanitarian and Other Fields,” 14 I.L.M. 1313 (1975).

⁷⁶ See, e.g., Green, , “Political Offences, War Crimes and Extradition,” 11 Int’l and Comp. L.Q. 329 (1962)Google Scholar; “Terrorism and the Courts,” 11 Man. L.J. 333 (1981). See also, The State (Ghana) v. Director of Prisons, ex. p. Schumann, [1966] G.L.R. 70, 39 I.L.R. 433; Eian v. Wilkes, 641 F.2d, 504 (1981) , and G.A. Res. 36/171 criticizing the decision, 21 I.L.M. 442 (1982); McGlinchy v. Wren, [1983] I.L.R.M. 169 (Sup. Ct, Ireland), and ex p. Doherty, The Times (London), Dec. 14, 1984, U.S. refusal to extradite self-confessed I.R.A. gunman — the U.S. Justice Department has sought to reverse this decision, ibid., Apr. 6, 1985.

⁷⁷ E.g., Res. 3034 (XXVII).

⁷⁸ Res. 3I34 (XXIX).

⁷⁹ Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, Annex to Res. 3166 (XXVIII), which provides that whenever the text of the Convention is published, the text of the Resolution with its “sanctification” of acts done in the name of self-determination must be attached.

⁸⁰ See, e.g., Mueller, and Wise, , International Criminal Law (1965)Google Scholar; Bassiouni, and Nanda, , A Treatise on International Criminal Law (1973)Google Scholar; Bassiouni, , International Criminal Law: A Draft International Criminal Code (1980)Google Scholar; Green, , “An International Criminal Code: Now?,” 3 Dal. L.J. 500 (1976)Google Scholar, “International Crime and the Legal Process,” 29 Int’l and Comp. L.Q. 567 (1980); Ferencz, , An International Criminal Court (1980).Google Scholar

⁸¹ See supra note 76.

⁸² Ibid.

⁸³ (1948) 78 UNTS, 277.

⁸⁴ 1969 c. 12, s. 1.

⁸⁵ Criminal Code, s. 281.1 (en. R.S.C., 1970, c. 11 (1st Supp.) s. 1).

⁸⁶ I.L.C.Y.B., 1979, II (Part II), 90, 1980, II (Part II), 14, 70. For a critical appraisal of this draft, see supra note 33.

⁸⁷ See supra note 62.

⁸⁸ Res. 3452 (XXX).

⁸⁹ See Filartiga v. Pena-Irala, 630 F.2d, 876 (1980); Hanoch Tel-Oren v. Libyan Arab Republic, 726 F.2d, 774 (1984).

⁹⁰ Art. 29(2), see text to supra note 30.

⁹¹ See, in this connection, the view of the Permanent Court of International Justice of the Hitlerite concept of the “fundamental idea of law and sound fundamental popular feeling,” Consistency of Certain Danzig Legislative Decrees with the Constitution of the Free City (1935), A/B 65; 3 Hudson, , World Court Reports 513, 514–16.Google Scholar

⁹² Res. 3068 (XXVIII).

⁹³ See Green, , “The Falklands, the Law and the War,” 38 Y.B. World Affairs 89 (1984).Google Scholar

⁹⁴ Marek, , “Criminalizing State Responsibility,” 14 Rev. Belge de Dr. Int’l 460, 484 (1978–79)Google Scholar; Green, , “Double Standards in the U.N.: The Legalization of Terrorism,” 18 Archiv des Völkerrechts 129 (1979).Google Scholar

⁹⁵ Supra note 85.

⁹⁶ Johnson, , Self-determination within the Community of Nations 53 (1967).Google Scholar

⁹⁷ Res. 3379 (XXX).

⁹⁸ Sureda, , The Evolution of the Right of Self-Determination 237 (1973).Google Scholar

⁹⁹ See Kaufmann, , United Nations Decision Making 127–9, 209–12 (1980)Google Scholar, Moskowitz, , The Roots and Reaches of United Nations Actions and Decisions 195–98 (1980).Google Scholar

¹⁰⁰ Reparation for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations, [1949] I.C.J. Rep. 174.

¹⁰¹ Namibia (South West Africa) Opinion, [ 1971 ] I.C.J. Rep. 16.

¹⁰² Art. 2(6).

¹⁰³ (1923), B/5, 1 Hudson, , World Court Reports 191.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁴ Case of the Monetary Gold Removed from Rome in 1943, [1954] I.C.J. Rep. 19.

¹⁰⁵ Supra note 100, at 179.

¹⁰⁶ Hammarskjold, introd. to Annual Report, 1960-61, GAOR, 16th Sess., Supp. No. 1A (A/4800/Add. 1), 1.

¹⁰⁷ Lauterpacht, , South-West Africa: Voting Procedure , [1955] I.C.J. Rep. 67. 115.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁸ Art. 34, 8 I.L.M. 679 (1969).

¹⁰⁹ Paraphrased by Grzybowski, , Soviet Public International Law 473 (1970)Google Scholar, from official records of Conference published by The Netherlands Dept. of Foreign Affairs.

¹¹⁰ Supra note 49.

¹¹¹ See, U.S. declaration under Art. 36, I.C.J.Y.B., 1983–84, at 90.

¹¹² Case of Certain Norwegian Loans, [1957] I.C.J. Rep. 9; see, however, Sep. Op. by Judge Lauterpacht, 43 et seq.

¹¹³ See Dissenting Ops. by Morozow, Judges and El-Khani, , Case Concerning Delimitation of the Maritime Boundary of the Gulf of Maine Area (Order), [1982] I.C.J. Rep. 3 Google Scholar, 11 and 12. See also Robinson, et al., “Some Perspectives on Adjudicating before the World Court,” 79 Am. J. Int’l L. 578, 582–83 (1985).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹¹⁴ [1984] I. C. J. Rep. 246.

¹¹⁵ Supra note 65.

¹¹⁶ State Department statement, Jan. 18, 1985, 24 I.L.M. 246 (1985). For criticism of this view, see Franck, , “Icy Day at the ICJ,” 79 Am. J. Int’l L. 379 (1985).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹¹⁷ New York Times, June 21, 1954.

¹¹⁸ 1758, Préliminaires, ss. 18, 19 (Carnegie tr., at 17 (1916)).

¹¹⁹ This statement of principle is not affected by the voting procedure of Art. 27(3), for the members of the United Nations exercising their sovereign rights, including that of auto-limitation, have agreed that five of their number shall not be required to limit the exercise of their sovereign rights to the same extent as the remainder.

¹²⁰ Res. 2625 (XXV).

¹²¹ Grzybowski, op. cit. supra note 109, at 118.

¹²² Warsaw speech, Nov. 12, 1968, cf. Erickson, op. cit. supra note 55, at 68. Brezhnev reverted to the concept of a “Commonwealth of socialist states” in 1975 and at the time of the Polish crisis 1981, The Times (London), Dec. 12, 1975, June 11, 1981.

¹²³ Kovalyov in Pravda, Sept. 26, 1968, cf. Erickson, op. cit., at 52.

¹²⁴ The Times, Oct. 25, 1983.

¹²⁵ Ibid., Oct. 26, 1983.

¹²⁶ Sinha, , New Nations and the Law of Nations 145 (1967).Google Scholar

¹²⁷ Austria v. Italy (Pfunders) (1963), 4 Y.B. European Conv. on Human Rights, 138.

¹²⁸ U.K. Treaty Series no. 51 (1949).

¹²⁹ (1927), A/10, 2 Hudson, , World Court Reports 33–34.Google Scholar

¹³⁰ Das moderne Völkerrecht der civilisirten Staaten als Rechtsbuch dargestellt 61 (1878).