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Diasporas, Extraterritorial Representation, and the Right to Vote

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 November 2015

FRÉDÉRIC MÉGRET  and
RAPHAËL GIRARD
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Abstract

This article argues that Canada’s policy of refusing extraterritorial electoral constituencies within its borders does not protect its territorial sovereignty or add any protection against foreign interference in its domestic affairs. Rather, its main effect is to alienate thousands of dual or foreign nationals residing in Canada by preventing them from being directly represented in their home state’s national assembly or legislature and, in some cases, from exercising their only voting rights.

Résumé

Cet article soutient que la politique canadienne visant à refuser toute circonscription électorale extraterritoriale en ses frontières ne protège pas sa souveraineté territoriale et n’ajoute aucune protection supplémentaire contre les ingérences étrangères dans ses affaires internes. Plutôt, son effet principal est d’aliéner des milliers de ressortissants étrangers ou possédant une double nationalité qui résident au Canada en empêchant ceux-ci d’être directement représentés à l’assemblée nationale ou législative de leur pays d’origine et, dans certains cas, d’exercer les seuls droits de vote qu’ils détiennent.

Keywords

Extraterritorial electoral constituenciesdiasporasvoting rightshuman rightstransnationalismCirconscriptions électorales extraterritorialesdiasporasdroits de votedroits de la personnetransnationalisme
Type
Articles
Information
Canadian Yearbook of International Law/Annuaire canadien de droit international , Volume 52 , October 2015 , pp. 185 - 221
Copyright
Copyright © The Canadian Yearbook of International Law/Annuaire canadien de droit international 2015 

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References

1 See Michael Collyer & Zana Vathi, “Patterns of Extra-territorial Voting” (Paper delivered at the Development Research Centre on Migration, Globalisation and Poverty, University of Sussex, October 2007, Working Paper T22) at 6 [Collyer & Vathi].

2 Collyer, Michael, “A Geography of Extra-Territorial Citizenship: Explanations of External Voting” (2014) 2(1) Migration Studies 55 at 67 [Collyer].Google Scholar

3 Ibid.

4 Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada (DFATD), Circular Note no XDC-1264, “Foreign Elections in Canada and Foreign Electoral Constituencies” (8 September 2011), online: DFATD <http://www.international.gc.ca/protocol-protocole/policies-politiques/circular-note_note-circulaire_xdc-1264.aspx?lang=eng> [Circular Note XDC-1264].

5 DFATD, “Policy on Foreign Elections in Canada and Foreign Electoral Constituencies: Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ),” online: DFATD <http://www.international.gc.ca/protocol-protocole/policies-politiques/elections_faq_elections_qr.aspx?lang=eng> [FAQ re Circular Note XDC-1264].

6 See generally Carasco, Emily et al, Immigration and Refugee Law: Cases, Materials, and Commentary (Toronto: Emond Montgomery, 2007) [Carasco et al].Google Scholar

7 Global Commission on International Migration, Migration in an Interconnected World: New Directions for Action — Report of the Global Commission on International Migration (October 2005) at Annex II, cited in Carasco et al, supra note 6 at 36.

8 Ibid.

9 Ibid.

10 Ibid at 37.

11 Ibid at 38.

12 Lacy, Brett, “Host Country Issues” in Ellis, Andrew et al, eds, Voting from Abroad: The International IDEA Handbook (Stockholm and Mexico: International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance and Federal Electoral Institute of Mexico, 2007) 137 at 137 [IIDEA Handbook].Google Scholar

13 Dieter Nohlen & Florian Grotz, “The Legal Framework and an Overview of Electoral Legislation” in IIDEA Handbook, supra note 12, 65 at 67.

14 Lacy, supra note 12 at 137.

15 Ibid.

16 Ibid.

17 Ibid.

18 Nohlen & Grotz, supra note 13 at 68.

19 Lacy, supra note 12 at 138.

20 Ibid.

21 Ibid.

22 Ibid.

23 Ibid.

24 Ibid at 139.

25 Ibid. See also Nadja Braun, “Switzerland: External Voting in a Federal State with Direct Democracy” in IIDEA Handbook, supra note 12, 230.

26 Lacy, supra note 12 at 139, 146.

27 Ibid.

28 Ibid at 139. It is worth mentioning that when external voting takes place at a country’s consulates or embassies or by postal registration and voting, agreements with host countries are less pressing and often not necessary. See generally Lacy, supra note 12 at 146.

29 See Circular Note XDC-1264, supra note 4.

30 Lacy, supra note 12 at 139.

31 FAQ re Circular Note XDC-1264, supra note 5.

32 Heather Yundt, “When Canada Says No to Expat Voting,” Capital News Online (2 March 2012), online: Capital News Online <http://www.capitalnews.ca/index.php/news/canada-forbids-foreign-expats-from-voting-for-north-american-representative> [Yundt].

33 Ibid.

34 Lacy, supra note 12 at 139.

35 See FAQ re Circular Note XDC-1264, supra note 5.

36 Ibid.

37 Ibid.

38 Ibid.

39 Canada, House of Commons, Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs and International Development, 41st Parl, 1st Sess, No 005 (6 October 2011) (Roxanne Dubé) [Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs and International Development].

40 FAQ re Circular Note XDC-1264, supra note 5.

41 Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs and International Development, supra note 39.

42 Ibid.

43 Circular Note XDC-1264, supra note 4.

44 FAQ re Circular Note XDC-1264, supra note 5.

45 Circular Note XDC-1264, supra note 4.

46 Ibid.

47 Ibid.

48 See FAQ re Circular Note XDC-1264, supra note 5.

49 As Tunisia and France did. See discussion later in this article.

50 FAQ re Circular Note XDC-1264, supra note 5.

51 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 18 April 1961, 500 UNTS 95, art 22 [VCDR].

52 Vienna Convention on Consular Relations, 24 April 1963, 596 UNTS 261 [VCCR].

53 FAQ re Circular Note XDC-1264, supra note 5.

54 Ibid.

55 Ibid.

56 VCCR, supra note 52.

57 FAQ re Circular Note XDC-1264, supra note 5.

58 Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs and International Development, supra note 39.

59 Ibid (Hélène Laverdière).

60 DFATD, “Statement by Minister Baird on Tunisian Elections,” News Release 272 (22 September 2011), online: DFATD <http://www.international.gc.ca/media/aff/news-communiques/2011/272.aspx?lang=eng&view=d>.

61 Ibid.

62 “Tunisians Vote in First Free Elections,” USA Today (23 October 2011), online: USA Today <http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/story/2011-10-23/tunisia-elections/50879770/1>.

63 “Tunisians Vote in First Free Elections since Former President Ben Ali Was Overthrown in Arab Spring Rebellion,” Daily Mail (23 October 2011), online: Daily Mail Online <http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2052477/Tunisians-vote-free-elections-president-Ben-Ali-overthrown-Arab-Spring-rebellion.html>.

64 Campbell Clark, “Tunisia Blocks Canadian Election Observers from Monitoring Voting,” Globe and Mail (6 October 2001), online: Globe and Mail <http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/tunisia-blocks-canadian-election-observers-from-monitoring-voting/article2193755/>.

65 “Canada’s Tunisians to Vote in Weekend Elections,” Agence France Presse (18 October 2011), online: Agence France Presse <http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5iIU4YtDSOQecItm8BCTlVXcCqFAg?docId=CNG.0a3a79a899c45c797325030d402c7da4.911>.

66 Ibid.

67 Marie-Ève Cousineau, “Les Tunisiens du Canada voteront, malgré l’opposition d’Ottawa,” Radio-Canada (21 October 2011), online: Radio-Canada.ca <http://www.radio-canada.ca/nouvelles/National/2011/10/18/006-tunisiens-canada-vote.shtml>.

68 Marc Godbout, “Différend électoral entre la France et le Canada,” Radio-Canada (21 December 2011), online: Radio-Canada.ca <http://www.radio-canada.ca/nouvelles/Politique/2011/12/20/002-differend-france-canada-elections-legislatives.shtml> [Godbout].

69 Agnès Gruda, “Le vote étranger, l’exception canadienne,” La Presse (6 october 2011), online: LaPresse.ca <http://www.lapresse.ca/debats/chroniques/agnes-gruda/201110/06/01-4454678-le-vote-etranger-lexception-canadienne.php> [Gruda].

70 Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs and International Development, supra note 39 (Roxanne Dubé).

71 Ibid.

72 Ibid.

73 Ibid.

74 Godbout, supra note 68.

75 Gruda, supra note 69.

76 Godbout, supra note 68.

77 Ibid.

78 Ibid.

79 Ibid.

80 Alia Farah, “Les Français du Canada voteront dans leur consulat et ambassade,” French Morning (7 February 2012), online: French Morning édition New York <http://frenchmorning.com/ny/2012/02/07/les-francais-du-canada-pourront-voter-aux-legislatives/>.

81 Ibid.

82 Guido Tintori, “The Transnational Political Practices of ‘Latin American Italians’” (2011) 49 International Migration 3 at 168–88.

83 Collyer & Vathi, supra note 1 at 4.

84 Ministero Dell’Interno, “Presentazione delle candidature per la circoscrizione estero” (2006), online: Ministero Dell’Interno <http://www.interno.gov.it/mininterno/export/sites/default/it/sezioni/sala_stampa/speciali/politiche_2006/scheda_21935.html> [Presentazione delle Ministero Dell’Interno].

85 Ibid.

86 Samuel Leduc-Frenette, “Les Italiens de RDP pourront voter,” L’Informateur de Rivière-des-Prairies (8 January 2013), online: L’informateur RDP <http://www.linformateurrdp.com/Actualites/Politique/2013-01-08/article-3152849/Les-Italiens-de-RDP-pourront-voter/1> [Leduc-Frenette].

87 Yundt, supra note 32.

88 Ibid.

89 Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs and International Development, supra note 39.

90 Leduc-Frenette, supra note 86.

91 Nohlen & Grotz, supra note 13 at 65.

92 Ibid.

93 Ibid.

94 Ibid.

95 See Collyer & Vathi, supra note 1.

96 See, eg, Godbout, supra note 68.

97 The Case of the SS Lotus (France v Turkey) (1927) PCIJ (Ser A) No 10.

98 Ibid.

99 Ibid.

100 Ibid.

101 Gruda, supra note 69.

102 See, eg, Godbout, supra note 68.

103 See, eg, Yundt, supra note 32.

104 Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs and International Development, supra note 39.

105 See Presentazione delle Ministero Dell’Interno, supra note 84.

106 Nohlen & Grotz, supra note 13 at 69.

107 Ibid.

108 Ibid.

109 Ibid.

110 Ibid.

111 Collyer & Vathi, supra note 1 at 10.

112 Ibid at 16.

113 Gruda, supra note 69.

114 Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs and International Development, supra note 39.

115 Ibid.

116 FAQ re Circular Note XDC-1264, supra note 5.

117 For a discussion on legal symbolism in general, see, eg, Eric A Posner, “Symbols, Signals, and Social Norms in Politics and the Law” (1998) 27 LS 765; or Jirí Pribán, Legal Symbolism: On Law, Time and European Identity (Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2007).

118 See Godbout, supra note 68.

119 Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs and International Development, supra note 39.

120 It is important to note that neither Romania nor Slovakia, which have the biggest Hungarian minorities, opposed the move. However the European People’s Party, of which the then Hungarian government was a member, criticized the legislation claiming that it was “unacceptable” and tantamount to “not recognising borders.” “Hungary’s EU Allies Criticise Minority Voting Law,” EU Business (12 January 2011), online: <http://www.eubusiness.com/news-eu/hungary-politics.81x/>.

121 Stratfor, “Emigrant Voting Rights Stir Debates in Europe,” Delfi (22 July 2014), online: <http://en.delfi.lt/central-eastern-europe/emigrant-voting-rights-stir-debates-in-europe.d?id=65353792>.

122 The French ambassador, for example, met the then minister for citizenship, immigration and multiculturalism in 2013 to express concerns about the slow pace at which permanent residence applications in Canada by French citizens were being processed. Crucially, it was the French ambassador and not the North American French deputy who raised these concerns. “Message de l’ambassade de France sur la question dite des ‘oubliés de Buffalo’” Consulat Général de France à Montréal, online: <http://www.consulfrance-montreal.org/Message-de-l-ambassade-de-France>.

123 This was argued, although unsuccessfully, by the French ambassador to Canada in the context of the French legislative election of 2012. See Godbout, supra note 68.

124 Kathryn Blaze Carlson, “Close Iran’s Ottawa Embassy: Nazanin Afshin Jam,” Globe and Mail (11 July 2012), online: Globe and Mail <http://news.nationalpost.com/2012/07/11/close-irans-ottawa-embassy-nazanin-afshin-jam/>.

125 Jessica Murphy, “Baird Talks Tough on Iran Embassy Concerns,” CNews (13 July 2012), online: Canoe CNews <http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Politics/2012/07/13/pf-19984821.html>.

126 Nohlen & Grotz, supra note 13 at 72.

127 Ibid.

128 Ibid.

129 Ibid at 72–73.

130 Ibid at 73.

131 Lacy, supra note 12 at 142.

132 For instance, “[a]greements can specify support from local and national police and security forces and can establish communications structures between the host state and election administrators.” Lacy, supra note 12.

133 Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs and International Development, supra note 39.

134 Carment, David & Bercuson, David, The World in Canada: Diaspora, Demography, and Domestic Politics (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2008) [Carment & Bercuson].Google Scholar

135 Laura Payton, “Foreign Ministers Downplay Shared Canada-U.K. Embassies,” CBC News (24 September 2012), online: CBC News <http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/story/2012/09/24/pol-more-details-on-sharing-embassies.html>.

136 Ibid.

137 “Italians in Canada Want [the] Right to Vote in Italian Elections,” IPOT News (13 December 2012), online: IPOTNews.com <http://www.ipotnews.com/m/article.php?jdl=Italians_in_Canada_want_right_to_vote_in_Italian_elections&level2=newsandopinion&level3=&level4=international&news_id=717650&group_news=ALLNEWS&taging_subtype=BANKING&popular=&search=y&q>.

138 See, eg, Carment & Bercuson, supra note 134.

139 See generally Nohlen & Grotz, supra note 13 at 66.

140 Ibid.

141 Collyer & Vathi, supra note 1 at 6.

142 Orr, Graeme, “Citizenship, Interests, Community and Expression: Expatriate Voting Rights in Australian Elections” in Bronitt, Simon & Rubenstein, Kim, eds, Citizenship in a Post-National World: Australia and Europe Compared (Annandale, Australia: Federation Press, 2008) 24.Google Scholar

143 Reflecting this, Commonwealth citizens who are resident in the United Kingdom are eligible to register to vote in the UK parliamentary general elections, even if they are not citizens of the United Kingdom and even if there is no reciprocity agreement with their country of origin. See online: UK Electoral Commission <http://www.electoralcommission.org.uk/faq/voting-and-registration/who-is-eligible-to-vote-at-a-uk-general-election>.

144 Nohlen & Grotz, supra note 13 at 65.

145 Ibid. Universal Declaration of Human Rights, GA Res 217(III), UNGAOR, 3d Sess, Supp No 13, UN Doc A/810 at 71 (1948), American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man, 2 May 1948, OEA/Ser.L./V.II.23, doc 21, rev 6 (1948), American Convention on Human Rights, 22 November 1969, OASTS No 36, 1144 UNTS 123; 9 ILM 99 (1969).

146 International Convention on the Protection of the Right of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families, 18 December 1990, 2220 UNTS 3, art 41.

147 Ibid.

148 See online: United Nations Treaty Collection <https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=IV-13&chapter=4&lang=en>.

149 Ibid.

150 See Frank v AG Canada, 2014 ONSC 907.

151 Frank v Canada (Attorney General), 2015 ONCA 536.

152 See, eg, Gelowitz, Mark A, “Frank v. Canada: Government Allowed to Shift Emphasis on Appeal in Constitutional Case,” The Conduct of an Appeal (14 August 2015) <http://www.conductofanappeal.com/frank-v-canada-government-allowed-to-shift-emphasis-on-appeal-in-constitutional-case/?_ga=1.259873039.429267012.1440702896>.Google Scholar

153 See Canada Elections Act, SC 2000, c 9, s 3.

154 “Expat Tunisians Cast Votes,” Gulf Daily News (21 October 2011), online: Gulf Daily News <http://www.gulf-daily-news.com/NewsDetails.aspx?storyid=315892>.

155 Ibid.

156 See, eg, Gruda, supra note 69.

157 Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs and International Development, supra note 39.

158 Cited in Peter J. Shapiro, “Dual Nationality: Unobjectionable and Unstoppable,” online: Center for Immigration Studies <http://www.cis.org/articles/cantigny/spiro.html>.

159 Ibid.

160 Lacy, supra note 12 at 139.

161 Collyer & Vathi, supra note 1 at 22.

162 Lafleur, Jean-Michel, Transnational Politics and the State: The External Voting Rights of Diasporas (New York: Routledge, 2013) at 30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

163 Ibid.

164 Lacy, supra note 12 at 139.