Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-g7gxr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-19T17:29:07.623Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Self-Care Among Older Adults

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 November 2010

Barbara A. Morrongiello
Affiliation:
University of Guelph
Benjamin H. Gottlieb
Affiliation:
University of Guelph

Abstract

This review and synthesis of the literature on the topic of self-care among older adults defines the construct in terms of preventive behaviours and responses to illness that are performed by lay people on their own behalf. After placing self-care in a historical context, theoretical perspectives and key findings concerning its incidence, correlates, and barriers are reviewed. This is followed by a review of the process and outcomes of interventions designed to promote self-care. The paper concludes with recommendations for future research, policy, and practice.

Résumé

Cette synthèse de la documentation sur les soins personnels chez les personnes ^gées définit le concept en termes des comportements préventifs et des réponses à la maladie adoptés par les profanes à leur propre bénéfice. Après avoir placé les soins personnels dans leur contexte historique, l'auteur examine les perspectives théoriques et les principales constatations sur son incidence ainsi que les corrélats et les barrières. Cet examen est suivi d'une revue du processus et des résultats des interventions destinées à promouvoir les soins personnels. L'auteur termine en présentant des recommandations en vue du développement de la recherche, des politiques et de la pratique.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Canadian Association on Gerontology 2000

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aloia, J. (1981). Exercise and skeletal health. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 29, 104107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
American Association of Retired Persons. (1989). Staying well: Health promotion programs for older persons. Washington, DC: AARP.Google Scholar
American Hospital Association. (1982). Strategies to promote self management of chronic disease. Chicago, IL: American Hospital Association.Google Scholar
Andersen, R., & Newman, J. (1973). Societal and individual determinants of medical care utilization in the United States. Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly, 51, 95124.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aniansson, A., Grimsby, G., Rundgren, A., Svanborg, A., & Orlander, T. (1980). Physical training in old men. Age and Ageing, 9, 186187.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Avis, N., McKinlay, J. & Smith, K. (1990). Is cardiovascular risk factor knowledge sufficient to influence behavior? American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 6, 137144.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Azjen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Baker, J.A. (1989). Breast self-examination and the older woman: Field testing an educational approach. The Gerontologist, 29, 405407.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baltes, M. (1988). The etiology and maintenance of dependency in the elderly. Behavior Therapy, 19, 301319.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baltes, M., & Wahl, H. (1996). Patterns of communication in old age: The dependence-support and independence-ignore script. Health Communication, 8, 217231.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bandura, A. (1969). Principles of behavior modification. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.Google Scholar
Barry, P., Pezzullo, W., Beery, G., DeFriese, G., & Allen, W. (1979). Self-care programs: Their role and potential. Chapel Hill: Health Services Research Center, University of North Carolina.Google Scholar
Becker, G., & Kaufman, S. (1988). Old age, rehabilitation and research: A review of the issues. The Gerontologist, 28, 459468.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bishop, G. (1987). Lay conceptions of physical symptoms. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 17, 127146.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blazer, D. (1979). Social support and mortality in an elderly community population. American Journal of Epidemiology, 115, 684694.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blumenthal, J.A., Schocken, D.D., Needels, T.L., Hindle, P. (1982). Psychological and physiological effects of physical conditioning on the elderly. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 26, 505510.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boult, C., Kane, R., Louis, T., Boult, L., & McCaffrey, D. (1994). Chronic conditions that lead to functional limitations in the elderly. Journal of Gerontology, 49, M28M36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Branch, L., & Jette, A. (1984). Personal health practices and mortality among the elderly. American Journal of Public Health, 74, 11261129.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, J., & McCreedy, M. (1986). The Hale elderly: Health behavior and its correlates. Research in Nursing and Health, 9, 317329.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buccola, V., & Stone, W. (1975). Effect of jogging and cycling programs on physiological and personality variables in aged men. The Research Quarterly, 46, 134139.Google ScholarPubMed
Butler, R., & Gleason, H. (1985). Productive aging. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Cameron, L., Leventhal, E., & Leventhal, H. (1993). Symptom representations and affect as determinants of care seeking in a community dwelling adult sample population. Health Psychology, 12, 171179.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Casserly, D., & McCauley, S. (1988). Educating the older patient. Caring, 7, 6064.Google ScholarPubMed
Champion, V. (1988). Attitudinal variables related to intention, frequency, and proficiency of breast self-examination in women 35 and older. Research on Nursing and Health, 11, 283291.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chappell, N. (1987). The interface among three systems of care: Self, informal and formal. In Ward, R. & Tobin, S. (Eds.), Health in aging. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Chappell, N., Strain, L., & Badger, M. (1988). Self-care in health and illness. Comprehensive Gerontology, 2, 92101.Google Scholar
Chernoff, R. (1990). Nutrition, health promotion, and aging. Topics in Geriatric Rehabilitation, 6, 1926.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cherry, R. L., Prebis, J., & Pick, V. (1995). Service directories: Reinvigorating a community resource for self-care. The Gerontologist, 35, 560563.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicerelli, V. (1980). Relationship of family background variables to locus of control in the elderly. Journal of Gerontology, 35, 108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, D. (1996). Age, SES, and exercise self efficacy. The Gerontologist, 36, 157164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, M., Kviz, F., Prohaska, T., Crittenden, K., & Warnecke, R. (1995). Readiness of older adults to stop smoking in a televised intervention. Journal of Aging and Health, 7, 119138.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, N., Rakowski, W., Wheeler, J., Ostrander, L., Oden, S., & Keteyian, S. (1988). Development of self management education for elderly heart patients. Gerontologist, 28, 491494.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clarke, A., & McGowan, P. (1998). The cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit of the Arthritis Self-Management Program.Paper presented at the meeting of the Association of Rheumatology Health Professionals,San Diego, CA.Google Scholar
Connell, C., Storandt, M., & Lichty, W. (1996). Impact of health belief and diabetes-specific psychosocial context variables on self-care behavior, metabolic control, and depression of older adults with diabetes. Behavior, Health and Aging, 2(3), 183196.Google Scholar
Dean, K. (1981). Self-care responses to illness: A selected review. Social Science and Medicine, 15A, 673687.Google Scholar
Dean, K. (1984). Use of non-prescription medicines to treat illness episodes. Journal of Social and Administrative Pharmacy, suppl. 1.Google Scholar
Dean, K. (1986). Self-care behavior: Implications for aging. In Dean, K., Hickey, T., & Holstein, B. (Eds.), Self-care and health in old age. London: Croom-Helm.Google Scholar
Dean, K. (1998). International perspectives on self-care research. In Ory, M., & DeFriese, G. (Eds.), (1998). Self-care in later life: Research, program, and policy perspectives. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Dean, K., Holst, E., & Wagner, M. (1983). Self-care of common illnesses in Denmark. Medical Care, 21, 10121032.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DeFriese, G., & Woomert, A. (1983). Self-care among U.S. elderly. Research on Aging, 5, 323.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeFriese, G., & Woomert, A. (1992). Informal and formal health care systems serving older persons. In Ory, M., Abeles, R., & Lipman, P. (Eds.), Aging, health and behavior. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Demers, R., Altamore, R., Mustin, H., Kleinman, A., & Leonardi, D. (1980). An exploration of the dimensions of illness behavior. Journal of Family Practice, 11, 10851092.Google ScholarPubMed
DiMatteo, M., & DiNicola, D (1982). Achieving patient compliance: The psychology of the medical practitioner's role. New York: Pergamon.Google Scholar
Douglas, B. (1990). Age less: Living younger longer. Brandon, MS: Quail Ridge Press.Google Scholar
Dunnell, K., & Cartwright, A. (1972). Medicine takers, prescribers and hoarders. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
Dwyer, J., & Campbell, D. (1991). Screening older Americans' nutritional status: Current practices and future possibilities. Washington, DC: Nutrition Screening Initiative.Google Scholar
Easton, K. (1993). Defining the concept of self-care. Rehabilitation Nursing, 18, 384387.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Edwardson, S., Dean, K., & Brauer, D. (1995). Symptom consultation in lay networks in an elderly population. Journal of Aging and Health, 7, 402416.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elliott-Binns, C. (1973). An analysis of lay medicine. Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners, 129, 255264.Google Scholar
Epsom, J. (1969). The mobile health clinic: A report on the first year's work. London: Southwark Health Department.Google Scholar
Ferrini, R., Edelstein, S., & Barrett-Connor, E. (1994). The association between health beliefs and health behavior change in older adults. Preventive Medicine, 23, 15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Franks, P., Lee, P., & Fullarton, J. (1983). Lifetime fitness and exercise for older people. San Francisco, CA: Aging Health Policy Center.Google Scholar
Fries, J. (1989). Aging well: A guide for successful seniors. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
Furstenberg, A., & Davis, L. (1984). Lay consultation of older people. Social Science and Medicine, 18, 827837.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garvey, A., Heinold, J., & Rosner, B. (1989). Self-help approaches to smoking cessation: A report from the Normative Aging Study. Addictive Behaviors, 14, 2333.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gottlieb, B.H. (1981). Preventive interventions involving social networks and social support. In Gottlieb, B.H. (Ed.), Social networks and social support. Beverley Hills, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Grady, K.E. (1988). Older women and the practice of breast self-examination. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 12, 473487.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, L.W., Gutman, G., McGowan, P., & Wister, A. (1998). Seniors independence through self-care, self-help, and mutual aid. Vancouver, BC: Institute of Health Promotion Research, University of British Columbia (NHRDPfunded SIRP Project No. 6610–2122–602).Google Scholar
Green, L.W., Mullen, P.D., & Stainbrook, G.L. (1986). Programs to reduce drug errors in the elderly: Direct and indirect evidence from patient education. Journal of Geriatric Drug Therapy, 1, 318.Google Scholar
Greenwood, S. (1984). Menopause, naturally: Preparing for the second half of life. San Francisco: Volcano Press.Google Scholar
Grembowski, D., Patrick, D., Diehr, P., Durham, M., Beresford, S., Kay, E., & Hecht, J. (1993). Self efficacy and health behavior among older adults. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 34, 89104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grotkowski, M., & Sims, R. (1978). Nutritional knowledge, attitudes, and dietary practices in the elderly. Journal of American Dietician Association, 72, 499.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, D., & Guten, G. (1979). Health protective behavior: An exploratory study. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 20, 1729.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hasselkus, B. (1994). Three track care: Older patient, family member, and physician in the medical visit. Journal of Aging Studies, 8, 291307.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haug, M., & Lavin, R. (1981). Practitioner or patients: Who's in charge? Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 22, 212229.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haug, M., & Lavin, R. (1982). Self-care and the elderly: An empirical assessment.Paper presented at the Xth World Congress of the International Sociological Association,Mexico City, Mexico.Google Scholar
Haug, M., Wykle, M., & Namazi, K. (1989). Self-care among older adults. Social Science and Medicine, 29, 171183.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haynes, B., Taylor, D., & Sackett, D. (Eds.). (1979). Complianace in health care. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Herzog, A., Fultz, N., Normolle, D., Brock, B., & Diokno, A. (1989). Methods used to manage urinary incontinence by older adults in the community. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 37(4), 339347.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hibbard, J., & Pope, C. (1983). Gender roles, illness orientation and the use of medical care. Social Science and Medicine, 17, 129137.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hickey, T. (1988). Self-care behavior of older adults. Family and Community Health, 11, 2332.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hickey, T., Rakowski, W., & Julius, M. (1988). Preventive health practices among older men and women. Research on Aging, 10, 315328.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holtzman, J., Akiyama, H., & Maxwell, A. (1986) Symptoms and self-care in old age. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 5, 183200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hornbrook, M.C., Stevens, V.J., & Wingfield, D.J. (1993). Seniors' program for injury control and education. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 41, 309314.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ingham, J., & Miller, P. (1979). Symptom prevalence and severity in a general practice. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 33, 191198.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaplan, G., Seeman, T., Cohen, R., Knudsen, L., & Guralnik, J. (1987). Mortality among the elderly in the Alameda County study: Behavioral and demographic risk factors. American Journal of Public Health, 77, 307312.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaplan, G., Strawbridge, W., Camacho, T., & Cohen, R. (1993). Factors associated with change in physical functioning in the elderly: A six year prospective study. Journal of Aging and Health, 5, 140153.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kart, C., & Engler, C. (1994). Predisposition to self-health care: Who does what for themselves and why? Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 49, S301–308.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kart, C., & Engler, C. (1995). Self-health care among the elderly: A test of the Health Behavior Model. Research on Aging, 17, 434458.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keller, M., Leventhal, H., Prohaska, T., & Leventhal, E. (1989). Beliefs about aging and illness in a community sample. Research in Nursing and Health, 12, 247255.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kemper, D. (1982). Self-care education: Impact on HMO costs. Medical Care, 10, 710718.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kincade, J.E., Rabiner, D.J., Bernard, S.L., Woomert, A., & Konrad, T.R. (1996). Older adults as a community resource: Results from the national survey of self-care and aging. Gerontologist, 36, 474482.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kiyak, H. (1984). Management of oral problems in the elderly. In Eisdorfer, C. & Starr-Bernard, D. (Eds.), Annual review of gerontology and geriatrics (pp. 106136). New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Kleinman, A. (1980). Patients and healers in the context of culture. Berkeley CA: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kline, R., & Terry, R. (1980). Differences in belief about heart disease risk factors between men and women. Journal of American Dietary Association, 86, 786788.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Konrad, T. (1998). The patterns of self-care among older adults in western industrialized societies. In Ory, M. & DeFriese, G. (Eds.), Self-care in later life: Research, program, and policy perspectives. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Lark, S. (1990). Menopause self-help book. Berkeley, CA: Celestial Arts.Google Scholar
Lashley, M. (1987). Predictors of breast self-examination practice among elderly women. Advances-in-Nursing-Science, 9, 2534.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leventhal, E., Easterling, D., Leventhal, H., & Cameron, L. (1995). Conservation of energy, uncertainty reduction, and swift utilization of medical care among the elderly: Study II. Medical Care, 33, 9881000.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leventhal, E., Leventhal, H., & Robitaille, C. (1998). Enhancing self-care research: Exploring the theoretical underpinnings of self-care. In Ory, M. & DeFriese, G. (Eds.), (1998). Self-care in later life: Research, program, and policy perspectives. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Leventhal, E., Leventhal, H., Shaefer, P., & Easterling, D. (1993). Conservation of energy, uncertainty reduction, and swift utilization of medical care among the elderly. Journals of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 48, P78P86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levin, L., Katz, A., & Hoist, E. (1967). Self-care: Lay initiatives in health. New York: Prodist.Google Scholar
Levin, L., Katz, A., & Hoist, E. (1976). Self care. New York: Prodist.Google ScholarPubMed
Levin, L., & Idler, E. (1983). Self-care in health. Annual Review of Public Health, 4, 181201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Littwin, S. (1996). Getting enough exercise? How to make sure. New Choices: Living Even Better After 50, 36, 3841.Google Scholar
Lorig, K., Fries, J., Stinchfield, D., Morre, I., & Silverman, S. (1983). Arthritis helpbook: What you can do for your arthritis. London, England: Souvenir Press.Google Scholar
Manson, A., & Shea, S. (1991). Malnutrition in elderly ambulatory medical patients. American Journal of Public Health, 81, 11951197.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maynard, M. (1988/1989). Health maintenance through stress management: A wellness approach for elderly clients. Activities, Adaptation and Aging, 13, 117127.Google Scholar
McAuley, E. (1993). Self efficacy and the maintenance of exercise participation in older adults. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 16, 103113.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McAuley, E., Lox, C., & Duncan, T. (1993). Long term maintenance of exercise, self efficacy, and physiological change in older adults. Journals of Gerontology, 48, P218P224.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGowan, P., Clarke, A., & Brown, M. (1998). The Eraser Valley studies into the impact of the Arthritis Self-Management Program. In L.W. Green, G. Gutman, P. McGowan, & A. Wister, Seniors independence through self-care, self-help, and mutual aid. Vancouver, BC: Institute of Health Promotion Research, University of British Columbia (NHRDP-funded SIRP Project No. 6610–2122–602).Google Scholar
Meyer, D., Leventhal, H., & Gutmann, M. (1985). Common-sense models of illness: The example of hypertension. Health Psychology, 4, 115135.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Millar, M., & Millar, K. (1995). Negative affective consequences of thinking about disease detection behaviors. Health Psychology, 14, 141146.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, L., & Goldstein, J. (1972). More efficient care of diabetic patients in a country hospital setting. New England Journal of Medicine, 286, 13881391.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mills, K., Stewart, A., King, A., Roitz, K., Sepsis, P., Ritter, P., & Bortz, W. (1996). Factors associated with enrollment of older adults into a physical activity promotion program. Journal of Aging and Health, 8, 96113.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morisky, D., Levine, D., Green, L., & Smith, C. (1982). Health education program effects on the management of hypertension in the elderly. Archives of Internal Medicine, 142, 18351838.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morley, J., Mooradian, A., Silver, A., Herbert, D., & Alfin-Slater, R. (1988). Nutrition in the elderly. Annals of Internal Medicine, 109, 890904.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morrell, D., & Wale, C. (1976). Symptoms perceived and recorded by patients. Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners, 26, 398403.Google ScholarPubMed
Namazi, K., Haug, M., & Wykle, L. (1985). Elderly self reliance and use of self-care.Paper presented at the symposium on Health and Illness Behavior in Middle and Late Life. Annual Meeting of the American Sociological Association,Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Nathanson, C. (1977). Sex, illness, and medical care: A review of data, theory, and method. Social Science and Medicine, 11, 1325.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nemcek, M. (1990). Health beliefs and preventive behavior: A review of the research literature. AAOHN, 38, 127138.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Neugarten, B. (1982). Policy for the 1980s: Age or need entitlement? In Neugarten, B. (Ed.), Age or need? Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Norburn, J., Bernard, S., Konrad, T., Woomert, A., DeFriese, G., Kalsbeek, W., Koch, G., & Ory, M. (1995). Self-care assistance from others in coping with functional status limitations among a sample of older adults. Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 50B, S101S109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olsen, R.V., Ehrenkrantz, E., & Hutchings, B. (1993). Creating supportive environments for people with dementia and their caregivers through home modifications. Technology and Disability, 2, 4757.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Orleans, C., Rimer, B., Cristinzio, S., Keintz, M., & Fleisher, L. (1991). A national survey of older smokers: Treatment needs of a growing population. Health Psychology, 10, 343351.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ory, M., & DeFriese, G. (Eds.), (1998). Self-care in later life: Research, program, and policy perspectives. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Paffenbarger, R., Hyde, R., Wing, A., Lee, I., Jung, D., & Kampert, J. (1993). The association of changes in physical-activity level and other lifestyle characteristics with mortality among men. New England Journal of Medicine, 328, 538545.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patrick, D., & Grembowski, D. (1992). A healthy future: The cost utility of medicare reimbursement for preventive services in an HMO. (No 95-C-99161/0–04, Year 4). Annual progress report to Health Care Financing Administration. Seattle: University of Washington, Department of Health Services.Google Scholar
Potts, M., Hurwicz, M., Goldstein, M., & Berkanovic, E. (1992). Social support, health promotive beliefs, and preventive health behaviors among the elderly. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 11, 425440.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pratt, L. (1971). The relationship of socioeconomic status to health. American Journal of Public Health, 61, 281291.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prochaska, J., & Velicer, W. (1997). The Transtheoretical Model of behavior change. American Journal of Health Promotion, 12, 3848.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prohaska, T. (1998). The research basis for the design and implementation of self-care programs. In Ory, M. & DeFriese, G. (Eds.), Self-care in later life: Research, program, and policy perspectives. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Prohaska, T., Leventhal, E., Leventhal, H., & Keller, M. (1985). Health practices and illness cognition in young, middle-aged, and elderly adults. Journal of Gerontology, 40, 569578.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rakowski, W. (1986). Personal health practices, health status, and expected control over future health. Journal of Community Health, 11, 189203.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rakowski, R. (1992). Disease prevention and health promotion with older adults. In Ory, M., Abeles, R., & Lipman, P., Aging, health and behavior. London: Sage.Google Scholar
Rakowski, W. (1998). Evaluating psychosocial interventions for promoting selfcare behaviors among older adults. In Ory, M. & DeFriese, G. (Eds.), Self-care in later life: Research, program, and policy perspectives. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Rakowski, W., Hickey, T., Verbrugge, L., & Halter, J. (1988). Daily symptoms and behavioral responses in late life. Research on Aging, 9, 331355.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rakowski, W., Julius, M., Hickey, T., & Halter, J. (1987). Correlates of preventive health behavior in late life. Research on Aging, 9, 331355.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rakowski, W., Rice, C., & McHorney, C. (1992). Information seeking about health among older adults: An examination of measurement and structural properties. Behavior, Health & Aging, 2, 181198.Google Scholar
Rice, G. E., Meyer, B. J. F., & Miller, D. C. (1989). Using text structure to improve older adults' recall of important medical information. Educational Gerontology, 15, 527542.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Riffle, K., Yoho, J., & Sams, J. (1989). Health promoting behaviors, perceived social support, and self reported health of the Appalachian elderly. Public Health Nursing, 6, 204211.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosenstock, I.M. (1974). The health belief model and preventive health behavior. Health Education Monographs, 2, 354386.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rowe, J., & Kahn, R. (1987). Human aging: Usual and successful. Science, 237, 143149.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ryan, E., Meredith, S., MacLean, M., & Orange, J. (1995). Changing the way we talk with elders: Promoting health using the Communication Enhancement Model. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 41, 89107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seeman, T., Kaplan, G., Knudsen, L., Cohen, R., & Guralnik, J. (1987). Social network ties and mortality among the elderly in the Alameda County Study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 126, 714723.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sidney, K., & Shephard, R. (1976). Attitudes towards health and physical training in the elderly: Effects of a physical training program. Medicine & Science in Sports, 8, 246252.Google ScholarPubMed
Sidney, K., Shephard, R., & Harrison, J. (1977). Endurance training and body composition of the elderly. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 30, 326333.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simon, N. (1996). For over 50s: Gym-dandy exercise plan. New Choices: Living Even Better After 50, 36, 20.Google Scholar
Smith, R., & Reddan, W. (1976). Physical activity- A modality for bone accretion in the aged. American Journal of Roentgenology, 126, 1297.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, E., Reddan, W., & Smith, P. (1981). Physical activity and calcium modality for bone mineral increase in aged women. Medicine and Science in Sports, 13, 6064.Google ScholarPubMed
Stasson, M., & Fishbein, M. (1990). The relation between perceived risk and preventive action: A within-subject analysis of perceived driving risk and intentions to wear seatbelts. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 20, 15411557CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steinbach, U. (1992). Social networks, institutionalization, and mortality among elderly people in the United States. Journal of Gerontology, 47, S183S190.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stevens, V.J., Hornbrook, M.C., Wingfield, D.J., Hollis, J.F., & Greenlick, M.R. (1992). Design and implementation of a falls prevention intervention for community-dwelling older persons. Behavior, Health, and Aging, 2, 5773.Google Scholar
Stoller, E. (1993). Interpretations of symptoms by older people: A health diary study of illness behavior. Journal of Aging and Health, 5, 5881.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stoller, E., Forster, L., & Portugal, S. (1993). Self-care responses to symptoms by older people. Medical Care, 31, 2442.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stoller, E., & Kart, C. (1995). Symptom reporting during physician consultation. Journal of Aging and Health, 7, 200232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stoller, E., Kart, C., & Portugal, S. (1997). Explaining pathways of care taken by elderly people: An analysis of responses to illness symptoms. Sociological Focus, 30, 147165.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Swart, D., Pollock, M., & Brechue, W. (1996). Aerobic exercise for older participants. Activities, Adaptation and Aging, 20, 925.Google Scholar
Szasz, T., & Hollender, M. (1956). A contribution to the philosophy of medicine: The basic models of doctor-patient relationship. AMA Archives of Internal Medicine, 97, 585592.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Umberson, D. (1987). Family status and health behaviors: Social control as a dimension of social integration. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 28, 306319.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Utian, W., & Jacobowitz, R. (1990). Managing your menopause. New York: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Verbrugge, L. (1983). Longer life but worsening health: Trends in health and morbidity of middle-aged and older men and women. Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly, 62, 475519.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verbrugge, L. (1985). Gender and health: An update on hypotheses and evidence. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 26, 156182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Verbrugge, L., & Balaban, D. (1989). Patterns of change in disability and well-being. Medical Care, 27, S128S147.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vickery, D.M., Golaszewski, T.J., Wright, E.C., & Kalmer, H. (1988). The effect of self-care interventions on the use of medical service within a medicare population. Medical Care, 26, 580589.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wagner, E., Grothus, L., Hecht, J., & LaCroix, A. (1991). Factors associated with participation in a senior health promotion program. The Gerontologist, 31, 598602.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weissfield, J., Kirscht, J., & Brock, B. (1990). Health beliefs in a population: The Michigan blood pressure survey. Health Education Quarterly, 17, 141155.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wiley, J., & Camacho, T. (1980). Lifestyle and future health: Evidence from the Alameda County Study. Preventive Medicine, 9, 121.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williamson, J., & Danaher, K. (1978). Self-care in health. London: Croom, Helm.Google Scholar
Wilson, R., & Elinson, J. (1981). National survey of personal health practices and consequences: Background, conceptual issues, and selected findings. Public Health Reports, 96, 218225.Google ScholarPubMed
Wister, A., Gutman, G., & Mitchell, B. (1998). The North Shore Self-Care Study. In L.W. Green, G. Gutman, P. McGowan, & A. Wister (1998). Seniors independence through self-care, self-help, and mutual aid. Vancouver, BC: Institute of Health Promotion Research, University of British Columbia (NHRDP-funded SIRP Project No. 6610–2122–602).Google Scholar
World Health Organization. (1980). The well being of the worl d's aging citizens. A status Report. Secretariat paper, IRP/ADR101/10, WHO. Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen, Denmark.Google Scholar
World Health Organization. (1983). Health education in self-care: Possibilities and limitations. Geneva: November 21–25.Google Scholar