Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gxg78 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T23:09:10.013Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Care Delivery Approaches and Seniors' Independence

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 November 2010

Carol L. McWilliam ,
William L. Diehl-Jones ,
Jeffrey Jutai  and
Saeed Tadrissi
Carol L. McWilliam
Affiliation:
University of Western Ontario
William L. Diehl-Jones
Affiliation:
University of Waterloo
Jeffrey Jutai
Affiliation:
University of Toronto
Saeed Tadrissi
Affiliation:
York University
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Fostering independence amongst people over 65 years of age, over 80 per cent of whom have medical conditions, presents many challenges to policy personnel, program planners, and service providers, as physical, social, and psychological dimensions of independence must all be considered. This paper presents a systematic literature review and synthesis of 65 rigorous, comprehensive research papers selected from 238 published studies on care delivery approaches relevant to promoting the independence of older persons. This evidence suggests the merits of exercise and health promotion programs for all seniors, and in-home geriatric health care management and fall prevention programs for frail older persons. Findings also indicate the need for more attention to policy on assistive devices, and the need for more research on the effectiveness of public health programming, on strategies to enhance preventive medical care, and onpsychosocial factors which affect seniors' self-efficacy.

Résumé

Stimuler l'autonomie chez les gens de plus de 65 ans, dont plus de 80 pour cent éprouvent des troubles médicaux, constitue un défi de taille pour le personnel des politiques, les planificateurs de programme et les prestateurs de services, qui doivent prendre en considération les aspects physiques, sociaux et psychologiques de l'autonomie. Cet article présente une analyse bibliographique systématique et une synthèse rigoureuse de 65 rapports de recherche détaillés sélectionnés à partir de 238 études publicées sur les approches de soins favorisant la promotion de l'autonomie des personnes àgées. Cet article témoigne en faveur des programmes d'exercices et de promotion de la santé pour toutes les personnes âgées, ainsi que de la gestion à domicile des soins de santé et des programmes de prévention des chutes pour les aîné(e)s frêles. De plus, les conclusions soulignent l'importance d'accorder plus d'attention aux politiques sur les appareils accessoires fonctionnels et le besoin d'avoir plus de recherches sur l'efficacité des programmes de santé publique, sur les stratégies de promotion de soins médicaux préventifs et sur les facteurs psychosociaux qui influent sur l'auto-efficacité des personnes âgées.

Keywords

Seniors' IndependenceSeniors' Health Care NeedsAutonomie des aîné(e)sbesoins des a^né(e)s en soins de santé
Type
Articles
Information
Canadian Journal on Aging / La Revue canadienne du vieillissement , Volume 19 , Issue S1 , Summer/Été 2000 , pp. 101 - 124
Copyright
Copyright © Canadian Association on Gerontology 2000

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ackermann, R.J., & Kemle, K.A. (1998). The effect of a physician assistant on the hospitalization of nursing home residents. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 46, 61–614.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Applegate, W.B., Miller, S.T., Graney, M.J., Elam, J.T., Burns, E., & Akins, D.E. (1990). A randomized, controlled trial of a geriatric assessment unit in a community rehabilitation hospital. New England Journal of Medicine, 322, 1572–1578.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Axell, L.A., & Yasuda, Y.L. (1993). Assistive devices and home modifications in geriatric rehabilitation. Geriatric Rehabilitation, 9, 803–821.Google Scholar
Baltes, P.B., Kliegl, R., & Dittman-Kohli, F. (1988). On the locus of training gains in research on the plasticity of fluid intelligence in old age. Journal of Educational Psychology, 880, 392–400.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Banerjee, S., Shamash, K., Macdonald, A.J.D., & Mann, A.H. (1996). Randomized controlled trial of effect of intervention by psychogeriatric team of depression in frail elderly people at home. British Medical Journal, 313, 1058–1061.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beck, A., Scott, J., Williams, P., Robertson, B., Jackson, D., Gade, G., & Cowan, P. (1997). A randomized trial of group outpatient visits for chronically ill older HMO members: The cooperative health care clinic. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 45, 543–549.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beisecker, A., & Beisecker, T. (1990). Patient Information – Seeking behaviours when communicating with doctors. Medical Care, 28(1), 19–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benson, L., Nelson, E., Napps, S., Roberts, E., Kane-Williams, E., & Salisbury, Z. (1989). Evaluation of the Staying Healty After Fifty educational program: Impact on course participants. Health Education Quarterly, 16(4), 485–508.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berkowitz, M.W., Waxman, R., & Yaffe, L. (1988). The effects of a resident self-help model on control, social involvement and self-esteem among the elderly. The Gerontologist, 28(5), 620–624.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bernabei, R., Landi, F., Gambassi, G., Sgadari, A., Zuccala, G., Mor, V., Rubenstein, L.Z., & Carbonin, P.U. (1998). Randomized trial of impact of model of integrated care and case management for older people living in the community. British Medical Journal, 316, 1348–1351.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blair, C.E., Lewis, R., Vieweg, V., & Tucker, R. (1996). Group and single-subject evaluation of a programme to promote self-care in elderly nursing home residents. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 24, 1207–1213.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Braden, C.J. (1990). A test of the self-help model: Learned response to chronic illness experience. Nursing Research, 39(1), 42–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buchner, D.M., & Pearson, D.C. (1989). Factors associated with participation in a community senior health promotion program: A pilot study. American Journal of Public Health, 79(6), 775–777.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burl, J.B., Bonner, A., Rao, M., & Khan, A.M. (1998). Geriatric nurse practitioners in long-term care: Demonstration of effectiveness in managed care. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 46, 506–510.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carpenter, G.I., & Demopoulos, G.R. (1990). Screening the elderly in the community: Controlled trial of dependency surveillance using a questionnaire administered by volunteers. British Medical Journal, 300, 1253–1256.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chipperfield, J.G. (1993). Perceived barriers in coping with health problems: A twelve-year longitudinal study of survival among elderly individuals. Journal of Aging and Health, 15, 123–139.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, P.G. (1989). The philosophical foundation of empowerment: Implications for geriatric health care programs and practice. Journal of Aging and Health, 1(3), 267–285.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clarke, M., Clarke, S.J., & Jagger, C. (1992). Social intervention and the elderly: A randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Epidermiology, 136, 1517–1523.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Connell, C.M., Davies, R.M., Rosenberg, A.M., & Fisher Jr, E.B. (1998). Retiree's perceived incentives and barriers to participation in health promotion activities. Health Education Research, 3, 325–330.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cox, E.O., & Parsons, R.R. (1996). Empowerment-oriented social work practice: Impact of late life relationships of women. Journal of Women and Aging, 8, 129–143.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dawe, D., & Moore-Orr, R. (1995). Low-intensity, range-of-motion exercise: Invaluable nursing care for elderly patients. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 21, 675–681.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elder, J.P., Williams, S.J., & Drew, JA. (1995). Longitudinal effects of preventive services on health behaviors among an elderly cohort. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 11, 354–359.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elward, K.S., Wagner, E.H., & Larson, E.B. (1992). Participation by sedentary elderly persons in an exercise promotion session. Family Medicine, 24, 607–612.Google Scholar
Epp, J. (1986). Achieving health for all: A framework for health promotion. Ottawa: Health Services and Promotion Branch.Google ScholarPubMed
Estes, C.L. (1979). The aging enterprise. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
Estes, C.L. (1980). Construction of reality: Problems of aging. Journal of Social Issues, 39(2), 117–132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Estes, C.L. (1991). The long term care crisis: Elders trapeed in the no-care zone. Newbury Park: Sage.Google Scholar
Estes, C.L., & Swan, J.H. (1993). The long term care crisis: Elders trapped in the no-care zone. Newbury Park: Sage.Google Scholar
Ettinger, W.H. Jr, Burns, R., Messier, S.P., Applegate, W., Rejeski, W.J., Morgan, T., Shumaker, S., Berry, M.J., O'Toole, M., Monu, J., & Craven, T. (1997). A randomized trial comparing aerobic exercise and resistance exercise with a health education program in older adults with knee osteoarthritis: The fitness arthritis and seniors trial (FAST). Journal of the American Medical Association, 277, 25–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ferrucci, L., Cecchi, F., Guralnik, J.M., Giampaoli, S., Lo Noce, C., Salani, B., Bandinelli, S., & Baroni, A. (1996). Does the clock drawing test predict cognitive decline in older persons independent of the mini-mental state examination? Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 44, 1326–1331.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fong, S. (1994). Youth-to-youth sexual health education programs: A critical approach to evaluation studies and a brief discussion of descriptive studies. Toronto: Toronto Department of Public Health.Google Scholar
Forbes, W.F., Hayward, L.M., & Agwani, N. (1993). Factors associated with self-reported use and non-use of assistive devices among impaired elderly residing in community. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 84, 53–57.Google Scholar
Frank, J.C, Hirsch, S.H., Chernoff, J., Wallace, S.P., Abrahamse, A., Maly, R., & Reuben, D.B. (1997). Determinants of patient adherence to consultative comprehensive geriatric assessment recommendations. Journals of Gerontology, Series A 52(1), M44–M51.Google ScholarPubMed
Fries, J.F., Bloch, D.A., Harrington, H., Richardson, N., & Beck, R. (1993). Twoyear results of a randomized controlled trial of a health promotion program in a retiree population: The bank of America study. The American Journal of Medicine, 94, 455–462.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galvin, J.C. (1997). Consumerism and outreach to underrepresented populations. Technology and Disability, 6, 49–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
George, S. (1991). Measures of dependency: Their use in assessing the need for residential care for the elderly. Journal of Public Health Medicine, 31(3), 178–181.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glass, T.A. (1998). Conjugating the “tenses” of function: Discordance among hypothetical, experimental, and enacted function in older adults. The Gerontologist, 38(1), 101–112.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grembowski, D., Patrick, D., Diehr, P., Durham, M., Beresford, S.Kay, E., & Hecht, J. (1993). Self-efficacy and health behaviour among older adults. Journal of Health and Social Behaviour, 34, 89–104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hahn, A., Van Beurden, E., Kempton, A., Sladden, T., & Garner, E. (1996). Meeting the challenge of falls prevention at the population level: A community-based intervention with older people in Australia. Health Promotion International, 11, 203–211.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hall, N., De Beck, P., Johnson, D., Mackinnon, K., Gutman, G., & Glick, N. (1992). Randomized trial of a health promotion program for frail elders. Canadian Journal on Aging, 11, 72–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamdorf, P.A., Withers, R.T., Penhall, R.K., & Haslam, M.V. (1992). Physical training effects on the fitness and habitual activity patterns of elderly women. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 73, 603–608.Google ScholarPubMed
Hamdorf, P.A., Withers, R.T., Penhall, R.K., & Plummer, J.L. (1993). A follow-up study of the effects of training on the fitness and habitual activity patterns of 60– to 70-year-old women. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 74, 473–477.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hassmen, P., Ruggero, C., & Backman, L. (1992). Exercise for older women: A training method and its influences on physical and cognitive performance. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 64, 460–466.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hawkins, W.E., Duncan, D.F., Dr P.H., , & McDermott, R.J. (1988). A health assessment of older Americans: Some multidimensional measures. Preventive Medicine, 17, 344–356.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Higgins, P. (1989). Short term changes in health behaviours of older adults. The Canadian Journal of Nursing Research, 21(1), 19–32.Google Scholar
Hunter, K.A., Florio, E.R., & Langberg, R.G. (1996). Pharmaceutical care for home-dwelling elderly persons: A determination of need and program description. The Gerontologist, 36, 543–548.Google Scholar
Inouye, S.K., Wagner, D.R., Acampora, D., Horwitz, R.I., Conney, L.M. Jr, & Tinetii, M.E. (1993). A controlled trial of a nursing-centered intervention in hospitalized elderly medical patients: The Yale geriatric care program. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 41, 1353–1360.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jagger, C., & Clarke, M. (1988). Mortality Risks in the Elderly: Five Year Follow-up of a Total Population. International Journal of Epidemiology, 17, 111–114.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jagger, C., Spiers, N., & Clarke, M. (1993). Factors associated with decline in function, institutionalization and mortality of elderly people. Age and Aging, 22, 190–197.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jensen, J., Counte, M.A., & Glandon, G.L. (1992). Elderly Health Beliefs, Attitudes, and Maintenance. Preventive Medicine, 21, 483–497.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jette, A.M., Harris, B.A., Sleeper, L., Lachman, M.E., Heislein, D., Giorgetti, M., & Levenson, C. (1996). A home-based exercise program for nondisabled older adults. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 44, 644–649.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Judge, J.O., Schechtman, K., Cress, E., & the FICSIT Group. (1996). The relationship between physical performance measures and independence in instrumental activities of daily living. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 44, 1332–1341.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kane, R.A., & Kane, R.L. (1986). Self-care and health care: Inseparable but equal for the well-being of the old. In Dean, K. et al. (Eds.), Self-care and health in old age. London: Croom-Helm.Google Scholar
Kaplan, G.A., Strawbridge, W.J., Camacho, T., & Cohen, R.D. (1993). Factors associated with change in physical functioning in the elderly: A six year prospective study. Journal of Aging and Health, 5(1), 140–153.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaplan, S.H., Greenfield, S., & Ware, J.E. Jr. (1989). Assessing the effects of physician-patient interactions on the outcomes of chronic disease. In K.N. Lohr (Ed.), Advances in health status assessment. Medical Care, 27(suppl. 1), 110–127.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keller, K.L., Flatten, E.K., & Wilhite, B.C. (1988). Friendly visiting as a means of informing homebound senior citizens of health-related community services. Journal of Community Health, 13, 231–240.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kelly-Hayes, M., Jette, A.M., Wolf, P.A., D'Agostino, R.B., & Odell, P.M. (1992). Functional limitations and disability among elders in the Framingham Study. American Journal of Public Health, 82, 841–845.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kiely, D.K., Kiel, D.P., Burrows, A.B., & Lipsitz, L.A. (1998). Identifying nursing home residents at risk for falling. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 46, 551–555.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
King, A.C., Oman, R.F., Brassington, G.S., Bliwise, D.L., & Haskell, W.L. (1997). Moderate-intensity exercise and self-rated quality of sleep in older adults. Journal of the American Medical Association, 277, 32–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kohrt, W.M., Spina, R.J., Holloszy, J.O., & Ehsani, A.A. (1998). Prescribing exercise intensity for older women. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 46, 129–133.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kozarevic, D.J., & Israel, L. (1987). Disabilities and the level of affected activities of daily living. Revue Epidemiologique et Sante Publique, 35, 248–256.Google ScholarPubMed
Langer, E., & Rodin, J. (1976). The effects of enhanced personal responsibility for the aged: A field experiment in an institutional setting. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 191–198.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
LaPlante, M.P., Hendershot, G.E., & Moss, A.J. (1997). The prevalence of need for assistive technology devices and home accessibility features. Technology and Disability, 6, 17–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leigh, J.P., Richardson, N., Beck, R., Kerr, C., Harrington, H., Parcell, C.L., & Fries, J.F. (1992). Randomized controlled study of a retiree health promotion program: The bank of America study. Archives of Internal Medicine, 152, 1201–1206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lianov, L., Kohatsu, N., & Bohnstedt, M. (1991). Referral outcomes from a community-based preventive health care program for elderly people. The Gerontologist, 31, 543–547.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lipton, H., & Adair Bird, J. (1994). The impact of clinical pharmacists' consultations on geriatric patients' compliance and medical care use: A randomized controlled trial. The Gerontologist, 34, 307–315.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lloyd, P.C. (1991). The empowerment of elderly people. Journal of Aging Studies, 5, 125–135.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lord, S.R., & Castell, S. (1994). Physical activity program for older persons: Effect on balance, strength, neuromuscular control, and reaction time. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 75, 648–652.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lord, J., & Hutchison, P. (1993). The process of empowerment: Implications for theory and practice. Canadian Journal of Community Mental Health, 12, 5–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mann, W.C. (1992). Use of environmental control devices by elderly nursing home patients. Assistive Technology, 4, 60–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mann, W.C. (1997). Aging and assistive technology use. Technology and Disability, 6, 63–75.Google Scholar
Mann, W.C., Hurren, D., & Tomita, M. (1993). Comparison of assistive device use and needs of home-based older persons with different impairments. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 47, 980–987.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mann, W.C., Hurren, D., Karuza, J., & Bentley, D.W. (1993). Needs of home-based older visually impaired persons for assistive devices. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 87, 106–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLaughlin, J., & Zeeberg, I. (1993). Self-care and multiple sclerosis: A view from two cultures. Social Science and Medicine, 37(3), 315–329.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McWilliam, C.L. (1991). From Hospital to Home: The Elderly's Discharge Experience. Family Medicine, 24, 247–268.Google Scholar
McWilliam, C.L., Belle, Brown J., Carmichael, J.L., & Lehman, J.M. (1994). A new perspective on threatened autonomy in elderly persons: The disempowering process. Social Science and Medicine, 38, 327–338.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McWilliam, C.L., Stewart, M., Brown, J.B., McNair, S., Desai, K., Patterson, M.L., Del Maestro, N., & Pittman, B.J. (1997). Creating empowering meaning: An interactive process of promoting health with chronically ill older Canadians. Health Promotion International, 12, 111–123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McWilliam, C.L., Stewart, M., Brown, J.B., McNair, S., Donner, A., Desai, K., Coderre, P., & Galajda, J. (1999). A randomized controlled trial of a critical reflection approach to home-based health promotion for chronically ill older persons. Health Promotion International, 14(1), 27–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mendelsohn, S.B. (1997). Assistive technology: public policy and financing. Technology and Disability, 6, 29–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mendes de Leon, C.F., Seeman, T.E., Baker, D.L., Richardson, E.D., & Tinetti, M.E. (1996). Self-efficacy, physical decline, and change in functioning in community-living elders: A prospective study. Journals of Gerontology:Social Sciences, 51, S183–S190.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
National Advisory Council on Aging. (1989). Understanding seniors' independence. Report #1: The barriers and suggestions for action. Ottawa: Ministry of Supply and Services Canada.Google Scholar
National Advisory Council on Aging. (1990). A portrait of seniors in Canada. Ottawa: Statistics Canada, Cat. No. 89–159.Google Scholar
National Advisory Council on Aging. (1993). Aging vignettes. Ottawa: Government of Canada.Google Scholar
National Council on Disability. (1993). Study on the financing of assistive technology devices and services for individuals with disabilities. Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion. (1986). Canadian Journal of Public Health, 77(6), 426–428.Google Scholar
Ottenbacher, K.J., Mann, W.C., Granger, C.V., Tomita, M., Hurren, D., & Charvat, B. (1994). Inter-rater agreement and stability of functional assessment in the community-based elderly. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 75, 1297–1301.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pathy, M.S., Bayer, A., Harding, K., & Dibble, A. (1992). Kandomised trial of case finding and surveillance of elderly people at home. Lancet, 340, 890–893.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Phillipson, C. (1992). Challenging “the spectre of old age”: Community care for older people in the 1990s. In Manning, W. & Page, R. (Eds.), Social policy yearbook (pp. 1–22). London: Gower.Google Scholar
Phillipson, C., & Walker, A. (1986). Conclusion: Alternative forms of policy and practice. In Walker, A. & Phillipson, C. (Eds.), Aging and social policy: A critical assessment (pp. 280–281). London: Gower.Google Scholar
Plautz, B., Beck, D.E., Selmar, C., & Radetsky, M. (1996). Modifying the environment: A community-based injury-reduction program for elderly residents. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 12, 33–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pollack, N., Rheault, W., & Stoecker, J.L. (1996). Reliability and validity of the FIM for persons aged 80 years and above from a multilevel continuing care retirement community. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 77, 1256–1261.Google Scholar
Premier's Council on Health Strategy. (1987–1991). Towards a strategic framework for optimizing health. Toronto: Ontario Ministry of Health.Google Scholar
Raphael, D., Brown, I., Renwick, R., Cava, M., Weir, N., & Heathcote, K. (1995). The quality of life of seniors living in the community: A conceptualization with implications for public health practice. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 86, 228–233.Google ScholarPubMed
Reid, A. (1996). What we want: Qualitative research. Canadian Family Physician, 42, 387–389.Google ScholarPubMed
Reschovsky, J.D., & Newman, S.J. (1990). Adaptations for independent living by older frail households. The Gerontologist, 30, 543–552.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reuben, D.B., Borok, G.M., Wolde-Tsadik, G., Ershoff, D.H., Dr P.H., , Fishman, L.K., Ambrosini, V.L., Liu, Y., Rubenstein, L.Z., & Beck, J.C. (1995). A randomized trial of comprehensive geriatric assessment in the care of hospitalized patients. New England Journal of Medicine, 332, 1345–1350.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reuben, D.B., & Siu, A.L. (1990). An objective measure of physical function of elderly outpatients: The physical performance test. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 38, 1105–1112.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reuben, D.B., Valle, L.A., Hays, R.D., & Siu, A.L. (1995). Measuring physical function in community-dwelling older persons: A comparison of self-administered, interviewer-administered, and performance-based measures. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 43, 17–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rodin, J., (1989). Sense of Control: Potentials for Intervention. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 503, 29–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rodin, J., & Langer, E. (1980). Aging labels: The decline of control and the fall of self-esteem. Journal of Social Issues, 36(2), 12–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rogers, J.C., & Holm, M.B. (1991). Task performance of older adults and low assistive technology and devices. International Journal of Technology and Aging, 4, 93–106.Google Scholar
Rogers, R.L., Meyer, J.S., & Mortel, K.F. (1990). After reaching retirement age physical activity sustains cerebral perfusion and cognition. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 38, 123–128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ross, F.M., & Bower, P. (1995). Standardized assessment for elderly people (SAFE): A feasibility study in district nursing. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 4, 303–310.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ruffing-Rahal, M.A. (1994). Evaluation of group health promotion with community-dwelling older women. Public Health Nursing, 11, 38–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schank, M.J., & Lough, M.A. (1990). Profile: Frail elderly women, maintaining independence. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 15, 674–682.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schweitzer, S.O., Atchison, K.A., Lubben, J.E., Mayer-Oakes, S.A., De Jong, F.J., & Matthias, R.E. (1994). Health promotion and disease prevention for older adults: Opportunity for change of preaching to the converted? American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 10, 223–229.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silverman, M., Musa, D., Martin, D.C., Lave, J.R., Adams, J., & Ricci, E.M. (1995). Evaluation of outpatient geriatric assessment: A randomized multi-site trial. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 43, 733–740.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smits, M.W., & Kee, C.C. (1992). Correlates of self-care among the independent elderly: Self-concept affects well-being. Journal of Gerontological Nursing, 18(9), 13–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spinhoven, P., Ter Kuile, M.M., Linssen, A.C.G., & Gazendam, B. (1989). Pain coping strategies in a Dutch population of chronic low back pain patients. Pain, 37(1), 77–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stewart, S., Pearson, S., Luke, C.G., & Horowitz, J.D. (1998). Effects of home-based intervention on unplanned readmissions and out-of-hospital deaths. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 46, 174–180.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stuck, A.E., Aronow, H.U., Steiner, A., Alessi, C.A., bula, C.J., Gold, M.N., Yuhas, K.E., Nisenbaum, R., Rubenstein, L.Z., & Beck, J.C. (1995). A trial of annual in-home comprehensive geriatric assessments for elderly people living in the community. The New England Journal of Medicine, 333, 1184–1189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thomas, J.J. (1996). Materials-based, imagery-based, and rote exercise occupational forms: Effect on repetitions, heart rate, duration of performance, and self-perceived rest period in well elderly women. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 50, 783–789.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tinetti, M.E., Speechley, M., & Ginter, S.F. (1988). Risk factors for falls among elderly persons living in the community. The New England Journal of Medicine, 319, 1701–1707.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Topper, A.K., Maki, B.E., & Holliday, P.J. (1993). Are activity-based assessments of balance and gait in the elderly predictive of risk of falling and/or type of fall? Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 41, 479–487.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Toseland, R.W., O'Donnell, J.C, Engelhardt, J.B., Richie, J., Jue, D., & Banks, S.M. (1997). Outpatient geriatric evaluation and management: Is there an investment effect? The Gerontologist, 37, 324–332.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Townsend, J., Piper, M., Frank, A.O., Dyer, S., North, W.R.S., & Meade, T.W. (1988). Reduction in hospital readmission stay of elderly patients by a community based hospital discharge scheme: A randomized controlled trial. British Medical Journal, 297, 20–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Rossum, E., Frederiks, C.M.A., Philipsen, H., Portengen, K., Wiskerke, J., & Knipschild, P. (1993). Effects of preventive home visits to elderly people. British Medical Journal, 307, 27–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vetter, N.J., Jones, D.A., & Victor, C.R. (1984). Effect of health visitors working with elderly patients in general practice: A randomized controlled trial. British Medical Journal, 288, 369–372.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wagner, E.H., LaCroix, A.Z., Grothaus, L., Leveille, S.G., Hecht, J.A., Artz, K., Odle, K., & Buchner, D.M. (1994). Preventing disability and falls in older adults: A population-based randomized trial. American Journal of Public Health, 84, 1800–1806.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walker, S.N., Volkan, K., Sechrist, K., & Pender, N. (1988). Health-promoting lifestyles of older adults: Comparisons with young and middle-aged adults, correlates and patterns. Advances in Nursing Science, 11(1), 76–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whittle, H., & Goldenberg, D. (1996). Functional health status and instrumental activities of daily living performance in noninstitutionalized elderly people. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 23, 220–227.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed