1 See, for example, Milbrath, Lester W. and Goel, M. L., Political Participation: How and Why Do People Get Involved in Politics? (2nd ed.; Chicago: RandMcNally, 1977)Google Scholar, and Sniderman, Paul M., A Question of Loyalty (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981)Google Scholar. Perhaps the most influential works in this tradition are Almond, Gabriel A. and Verba, Sidney, The Civic Culture (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and Verba, Sidney, Nie, Norman H. and Kim, Joe-On, Participation and Political Equality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978)Google Scholar.

2 See Eckstein, Harry, “A Culturalist Theory of Political Change,” American Political Science Review 82 (1988), 789–904CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and Ingelhart, Ronald, “The Renaissance of Political Culture,” American Political Science Review 82 (1988), 1203–1230CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3 Sniderman, Paul M., Personality and Democratic Politics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975)Google Scholar.

4 See McCloskey, Herbert and Brill, Alida, Dimensions of Tolerance (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1983)Google Scholar; Nunn, Clyde, Crockett, Harry J. and Williams, J. Allen, Tolerance for Nonconformity (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1978)Google Scholar; and Sullivan, John L., Piereson, J. and Marcus, George E., Political Tolerance in Context (Boulder: Westview, 1982)Google Scholar.

5 Sullivan, Piereson and Marcus, Political Tolerance in Context.

6 Milbrath, Lester W., Political Participation (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965)Google Scholar, and Verba, Sidney and Nie, Norman H., Participation in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972), 125ffGoogle Scholar.

7 Almond and Verba, The Civic Culture, and Verba, Nie and Kim, Participation and Political Equality.

8 On Australia, see Evans, M. D. and Kelley, Jonathan, “Immigrants' Work: Equality and Discrimination in the Australian Labour Market,” Australian and New Zealand Journal of Sociology 22 (1986), 187–207CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and Kelley, Jonathan and McAllister, Ian, “Immigrants, Socioeconomic Attainments, and Politics in Australia,” British Journal of Sociology 35 (1984), 387–405CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Of the United States, see Featherman, Donald, “The Socioeconomic Achievement of White Religio-Ethnic Sub-Groups,” American Sociological Review 36 (1971), 207–233CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and Greeley, Andrew M., Ethnicity, Denomination, and Inequality (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1978)Google Scholar.

9 Greeley, Andrew M., “Political Participation among Ethnic Groups in the United States: A Preliminary Reconaissance,” American Journal of Sociology 80 (1974), 170–204.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

10 Mishler, William, Political Participation in Canada (Toronto: Macmillan, 1979)Google Scholar.

11 Verba, Nie and Kim, Participation and Political Equality, 209–14.

12 For reviews, see Abramson, Paul, The Political Socialization of Black Americans (New York: Free Press, 1977)Google Scholar, and by the same author, Political Attitudes in America (San Francisco: Freeman, 1983)Google Scholar.

13 Verba and Nie, Participation in America, 173.

14 Easton, David and Dennis, Jack, “The Child's Acquisition of Regime Norms: Political Efficacy,” American Political Science Review 61 (1967), 25–38CrossRefGoogle Scholar; see also by the same authors, Children in the Political System (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969)Google Scholar.

15 Easton and Dennis, “The Child's Acquisition,” 63.

16 Sniderman, Personality and Democratic Politics, 254.

17 Sullivan, Piereson and Marcus, Political Tolerance in Context, 202.

18 James L. Gibson and Raymond M. Duch, “Cultural Barriers to European Integration? A Cross-Level Analysis of Democratic Tolerance,” Journal of Politics (forthcoming).

19 Black, Jerome H., “The Practice of Politics in Two Settings: Political Transferability Among Recent Immigrants to Canada,” this Journal 20 (1987), 731–753Google Scholar. See also, by the same author, “Immigrant Political Adaptation in Canada: Some Tentative Findings,” this Journal 15 (1982), 3–27Google Scholar, and Black, Jerome H., Niemi, Richard G. and Powell, G. Bingham, “Age Resistance and Political Learning in a New Environment: The Case of Canadian Immigrants,” Comparative Politics 20 (1987), 73–84CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

20 Welch, Susan, “Dimensions of Political Participation in a Canadian Sample,” this Journal 8 (1975), 553–559Google Scholar.

21 Graetz, Brian and McAllister, Ian, Dimensions of Australian Society (Melbourne: Macmillan, 1988)Google Scholar.

22 Collins, Jack, “Migrants: The Political Void,” in Mayer, Henry and Nelson, Helen, eds., Australian Politics: A Fifth Reader (Melbourne: Cheshire, 1976)Google Scholar, and Wilson, Paul R., Immigrants and Politics (Canberra: ANU Press, 1973)Google Scholar.

23 McAllister, Ian, “Ethnic Issues and Voting in the 1987 Australian Federal Election,” Politics 23 (1988), 11–15CrossRefGoogle Scholar; McAllister, Ian and Kelley, Jonathan, “Class, Ethnicity and Voting Behaviour in Australia,” Politics 17 (1982), 96–107CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and by the same authors “Changes in the Ethnic Vote in Australia, 1967–79,” Politics 18 (1983), 98–107CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

24 Bean, Clive, “Orthodox Political Participation in Australia,” Australia and New Zealand Journal of Sociology 25 (1989), 451–479CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

25 Gibson and Duch, “Cultural Barriers.”

26 An alternative approach, used in preliminary analyses, was to use separate national groups with 100 or more respondents in the survey. This has the advantage of clarity, but the disadvantage that around half of the respondents were excluded since they did not come from a sufficiently sizeable birthplace group. Moreover, this approach restricted the analyses that could be conducted examining periods in democratic and non-democratic countries prior to migration. The broad birthplace categories used here are justified on the grounds that immigrants from those countries tend to reside in similar areas within Australia (see Kelley, Jonathan and McAllister, Ian, “The Decision to Become an Australian Citizen,” Australian and New Zealand Journal of Sociology 18 [1982], 428–440CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and McAllister and Kelley, “Changes in the Ethnic Vote”).

27 This includes immigrants from Ireland (North and South) as well as those from England, Scotland and Wales. Excluding Irish immigrants (who are not large enough to be analyzed separately) reaches the same substantive conclusions.

28 The main sources of information used to identify countries with continuous democratic traditions were Butler, David and Ranney, Austin, eds., Democracy at the Polls (Washington: American Enterprise Institute, 1981)Google Scholar, and Powell, G. Bingham, Contemporary Democracies (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982)Google Scholar.

29 An alternative coding used in preliminary analyses was to subdivide countries not classed as continuously democratic into those which had had no experience of democracy since 1945 (for example, all the Eastern European countries) and those which had moved between non-democratic and democratic systems (for example, Spain). The results indicated that this finer division added little to the substantive results, and for parsimony the simple democratic/non-democratic division is used.

30 Kelley and McAllister, “Immigrants, Socioeconomic Attainment.”

31 Sniderman, Personality and Democratic Politics, 207.

32 Dalton, Russell J., Citizen Politics in Western Democracies (Chatham, N.J.: Chatham, 1988)Google Scholar; Lambert, Ronald J., Curtis, James E., Brown, Steven D. and Kay, Barry J., “Effects of Identification with Governing Parties on Feelings of Political Efficacy and Trust,” this Journal 19 (1986), 705–728Google Scholar.

33 Adorno, T. W. et al. , The Authoritarian Personality (New York: Harper, 1950)Google Scholar, and Berry, J. W., et al. , Multiculturalism and Ethnic Attitudes in Canada (Ottawa: Canadian Government Publishers, 1977)Google Scholar.

34 Adorno et al., The Authoritarian Personality.

35 Black, “The Practice of Policies.”

36 Kelley and McAllister, “Immigrants, Socioeconomic Attainment.”

37 Verba, Nie and Kim, Participation and Political Equality, 1.

38 Almond and Verba, The Civic Culture, and Nettle, Peter, Political Mobilisation (London: Faber, 1967)Google Scholar. Milbrath and Goel (Political Participation, 2) define political participation more broadly, as “those actions of private citizens by which they seek to influence or support government and politics.” In this definition, they include explicitly such symbolic and ceremonial acts.

39 Verba and Nie, Participation in America, and Verba, Nie and Kim, Participation and Political Equality.

40 Turnout in Australia federal elections is typically about 95 per cent (see McAllister, Ian, “Compulsory Voting, Turnout and Party Advantage in Australia,” Politics 21 [1986], 89–93CrossRefGoogle Scholar). It could be argued that citizenship provides the Australian equivalent of the voting dimension, particularly for immigrants, since becoming a citizen is a voluntary act (like turnout) which conveys the obligation to vote (Graetz and McAllister, Dimensions, 100–03). However, this has no consequences for the Australianborn, for whom it is not a voluntary act. Moreover, different patterns of citizenship apply to the birthplace groups and, until recently, different rules applied to British and non-British immigrants about eligibility (see Kelley and McAllister, “The Decision,” and Wearing, Rosemary, “Correlates of Choosing Australian Citizenship,” Australia and New Zealand Journal of Sociology 21 [1985], 395–413)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Because of these complications, then, we do not consider citizenship here.

41 A factor analysis confirmed that these dimensions were distinct among the respondents. Communal participation combines five items, all concerned with solving community problems: formed an action group, worked with others and contacted federal, state or local officials. Campaign activity is made up of attended political Euro meetings, helped parties or candidates and persuaded others at elections. Particularized contacts combines contact with a federal, state or local official about a family problem. For details of scale construction, see Appendix.

42 Verba and Nie, Participation in America, 31.

43 Kelley and McAllister, “Immigrants, Socioeconomic Attainments,” and Evans and Kelley, “Immigrants' Work.”

44 The methodology is outlined in Alwin, Duane F. and Hauser, Richard M., “The Decomposition of Effects in Path Analysis,” American Sociological Review 40 (1975), 37–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

45 Sniderman, Personality and Democratic Politics.

46 McCloskey and Brill, Dimensions of Tolerance, and Sullivan, Piereson and Marcus, Political Tolerance in Context.

47 Gibson and Duch, “Cultural Barriers.”

48 Verba and Nie, Participation in America, 83–84.

49 See Caplan, Nathan, Whitmore, John K. and Choy, Marcella H., The Boat People and Achievement in America (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1989)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

50 Black, “The Practice of Politics.”

51 Full details of the sampling methods can be found in Social Science Data Archives, Issues in Multicultural Australia Survey 1988: User's Guide for the Machine-Readable Data File (Canberra: Social Science Data Archives, Australian National University, 1989)Google Scholar.

52 Alwin and Hauser, “Decomposition of Effects.”

53 Hertel, Bradley R., “Minimizing Error Variance Introduced by Missing Data Routines in Survey Analysis,” Sociological Methods and Research 4 (1976), 169–184.CrossRefGoogle Scholar