Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-lj6df Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-19T08:49:25.419Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Treatment of Parkinson’s disease with agents other than Levodopa and Dopamine Agonists: controversies and new approaches

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 September 2015

Anthony E. Lang*
Affiliation:
Division of Neurology, Toronto Western Hospital, Toronto, Ontario
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

Parkinson’s disease is associated with a variety of neurotransmitter disturbances which may be further altered by its treatment with dopamine agonists. Based on this information a wide range of pharmacological approaches have been used in search of newer treatment alternatives and in hopes of reducing complications of long-term levodopa use. This paper reviews the various therapies which have had some success in the management of Parkinson’s disease, other than levodopa and dopamine agonists. Special emphasis is placed on the many unresolved questions and controversies that exist in this area of neuropharmacology.

Type
7. Treatment of Parkinson’s Disease
Copyright
Copyright © Canadian Neurological Sciences Federation 1984

References

Albert, M (1978) Subcortical dementiaIn: Alzheimer’s disease, Senile Dementia and Related Disorders. Edited by Katzman, R., Terry, R.D. and Bick, K.L.. Raven Press; New York. pp. 173180.Google Scholar
Agid, Y, Quinn, N, Pollack, P, Illas, A, Destee, A, Signoret, JL, Lhermitte, F (1981) The treatment of Parkinson’s disease with dopaminergic agonists in combination with domperidone. In: Apomophine and other Dopaminergics Vol 2: Clinical Pharmacology, edited by Corsini, GU and Gessa, GL.Raven Press New York pp. 107115.Google Scholar
Asnis, G (1977) Parkinson’s disease, depression and ECT: A review and case study. Am. J. Psychiatry 134: 191195.Google ScholarPubMed
Balldin, J, Edén, S, Granérus, AK, Modign, K, Svanborg, A, Wâlinder, J, Wallin, L (1980) Electroconvulsive therapy in Parkinson’s syndrome with “on-off” phenomenum. J. Neural. Transm. 47: 1121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barbeau, A (1962) The Pathogenesis of Parkinson’s disease: A new hypothesis. Can. Med. Ass. J. 87: 802807.Google ScholarPubMed
Barbeau, A (1979) Lecithin in Movement disorders. In: Nutrition and the Brain. Volume 5 edited by Barbeau, A, Growdon, JH, and Wurtman, RJRaven Press, New York pp. 263271.Google Scholar
Barbeau, A, Kastin, AJ (1976) Polypeptide therapy in Parkinson’s disease – a new approach. In: Advances in Parkinsonism, edited by Birkmayerand, WHornykiewicz, OEditions Roche, Basel pp. 483487.Google Scholar
Barbeau, A, Roy, M, Gonce, M, Labrecque, R (1979) Newer therapeutic Approaches in Parkinson’s disease. Adv. Neurol. 24: 433450.Google Scholar
Bartholini, G, Lloyd, KG, Worms, P, Constantinides, J, Tissot, R (1979) GABA and GABA-ergic medication: relation to Striatal dopamine function and Parkinsonism. Adv. Neurol. 24: 253257.Google Scholar
Beasley, BL, Nutt, JG, Chase, TN (1980) Treatment with Tryptophan of levodopa-associated psychiatric disturbances. Arch. Neurol. 37: 155156.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bédard, P, Parkes, JD, Marsden, CD (1978) Effect of new dopamine-blocking agent (oxiperomide) on drug induced dyskinesias in Parkinson’s disease and sponteneous diskinesias. Brit. Med. J. 1: 954956.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bédard, P, Parkes, JD, Marsden, CD (1977) Normifensine in Parkinson’s disease Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 4: 18751905.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birkmayer, W, Hornykeiwicz, O (1962) Der L-Dioxyphenylalanin (= DOPA) – Effekt Beeim Parkinson – syndrom des menschen: Zur pathogenese und behandlung des Parkinsons-akinese. Arch Psychiat Nervenk 203: 560574.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birkmayer, W, Neumayer, E (1972) Die behandlung der Dopa psychosen mit L-Tryptophan. Der Nervenarzt 43: 7678.Google ScholarPubMed
Birkmayer, W, Riederer, P, Youdim, MBH, Linauer, W (1975) The potentiation of the anti-akinetic effect after L-dopa treatment by an inhibitor of MAO-B, deprenyl. J. Neural. Transm. 36: 303326.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birkmayer, W, Riederer, P, Ambrozi, L, Youdim, MBH (1977) Implications of combined treatment with “Madopar” and L-deprenyl in Parkinson’s disease. Lancet 8019: 439443.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birkmayer, W, Riederer, P, Youdim, MBH (1982) (-) Deprenyl in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease. Clin Neuropharmacology 5:195230.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bloom, F, Sagal, D, Ling, N, Guilleman, R (1976) Endorphins: profound behavioural effects in rats suggest new etiological factors in mental illness. Science 194: 630632.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bowery, NG, Hill, DR, Hudson, AL, Doble, AL, Middlemiss, DN, Shaw, J, Turnbull, M (1980) (-) Baclofen decreases neurotransmitter release in the mammalian CNS by an action at a novel GABA receptor. Nature 283: 9294.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broil, M, Eymard, P, Ferrandes, B, Werbenec, JP (1977) Pharmacologie d’un nouvel anti-parkinsonian, la diprobutine (LCG 21519) J Pharmacol 8: 524525.Google Scholar
Bryant, RC (1980) Duration of illness and response to tryptophan in Parkinson’s disease. Arch. Neurol. 37: 677.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burke, RE, Fahn, S (1982) Pharmocokinetics of trihexyphenidyl after acute and chronic administration. Ann. Neurol. 12: 94.Google Scholar
Clane, DB, Reid, JL, Vakil, SD (1972) Parkinsonism treated with 3–0-methyldopa. Clin. Pharm. Therap. 14: 386389.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Casey, DE (1978) Amantadine intoxication reversed by physostigmine. N. Engl. J. Med. 298:516.Google ScholarPubMed
Chase, TN (1974) Serotonergic mechanisms and extrapyramidal function in man. Adv. Neurol. 5: 3139.Google ScholarPubMed
Coffey, CE, Ross, DR, Ferren, EL, Sullivan, JL, Olanow, CW (1982) Treatment of the “on-off” phenomenon in parkinsonism with lithium carbonate. Ann. Neurol. 12: 375379.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coyle, JT, Snyder, SH (1969) Antiparkinsonian drugs: Inhibition of dopamine uptake in the corpus striatun as a possible mechanism of action. Science 166: 899901.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cuello, AC, Paxinos, G (1978) Evidence for a long leu-encephalin striopallidal pathway in rat brain. Nature 271: 178180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Curtius, H-Ch, Niederwieser, A, Levine, RA, Lovenberg, W, Woggon, B, Angst, J (1983) Successful treatment of depression with Tetrahydrobiopterin. Lancet 1: 657658.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davies, P, Maloney, AJF (1976) Selective loss of central cholinergic neurones in Alzheimer’s disease. Lancet 2: 1403.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, PL, Stewart, WB (1938) The use of benzedrine sulfate in postencephalitic parkinsonism. JAMA 110: 18901892.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Smet, Y, Ruberg, M, Serdaru, M, Dubois, B, Lhermitte, F, Agid, Y (1982) Confusion, dementia and anticholinergics in Parkinson’s disease. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 45: 11611164.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diamond, BI, Hitri, A, Borison, RL, Passinetti, G (1982) The Role of cholecystokinin in the striatum: implications in Parkinson’s disease. Ann. Neurol. 12: 98.Google Scholar
DiMascio, A, Bernardo, DL, Greenblatt, DJ, Marder, JE (1976) A controlled trial of Amantadine in drug-induced extrapyramidal disorders. Arch Gen. Psychiatry 33: 599602.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duvoisin, RC (1967) Cholinergic-anticholinergic antagonism in Parkinsonism. Arch. Neurol. 17: 124136.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisler, T, Teräväinen, H, Nelson, R, Krebs, H, Weise, V, Lake, CR, Ebert, MH, Whetzel, N, Murphy, DL, Kopin, IJ, Clane, DB (1981) Deprenyl in Parkinson’s disease. Neurology (NY) 31: 1923.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ericsson, AD (1971) Potentiation of the L-dopa effect in man by the use of catechol-O-methyltransferase inhibitors. J. Neurol. Sci. 14: 193197.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fahn, S (1982) In: The management of Parkinson’s disease at different stages of the illness. Clin. Pahrmacol. 5(1) p. 59.Google Scholar
Fahn, S, Craddock, G, Kumin, G (1971) Acute toxic psychosis from suicidal overdosage of Amantadine. Arch. Neurol. 25: 4548.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fahn, S, Libsch, LK, Cutler, RW (1971a) Momoamines in the human neostriatum: Topographic distribution in normals in Parkinson’s disease and their role in akinesia, rigidity, chorea and tremor. J. Neurol. Sci. 14: 427455.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farnebo, L, Fuxe, K, Hamberger, B, Ljungdahl, H (1970) Effect of some antiparkinsonian drugs on catecholamine neurons. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 22: 733737.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Foster, NL, Newman, RP, LeWitt, PA, Gillespie, MM, Chase, TN, Larsen, TA (1983) Beta blockade of Parkinsonian Tremor. Ann. Neurol. 14: 134.Google Scholar
Gerlak, RP, Clark, R, Stump, JM, Vernier, VG (1970) Amantadine-dopamine interaction. Science 169: 203204.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gerstenbrand, F, Rainer, J, Poewe, W (1979) The influence of B adrenergic blocking agents on Parkinson Synsdrome. Can. J. Neurol. Sci. 6: 79.Google Scholar
Gervas, JJ, Muradas, V, Bazán, E, Aguado, EG, de Yébenes, JG (1983) Effects of 3-OM-dopa on monoamine metabolism in rat brain. Neurology 33: 278282.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goetz, CG, Nausiedad, PA, Weiner, WH, Klawans, HL (HL) (1981) Practical guidelines for drug holidays in parkinsonian patients. Neurology (NY) 31: 641642.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goetz, CG, Tanner, CM, Klawans, KL (1983) Bupropion-HCl in idiopathic Parkinson’s disease. Neurology 33 (2): 123.Google Scholar
Greenfield, JG, Bosanquet, FD (1953) The brain-stem lesions in parkinsonism. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 16: 213226.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Growden, JH (1981) Tyrosine treatment in Parkinson’s disease: clinical effects. Neurology (NY) 31(2) 134.Google Scholar
Halliday, AM, Nathan, PW (1961) Methylphenidate in Parkinsonism. Brit Med. J. 1: 16521655.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heel, RC, Morley, PA, Brogden, RN, Carmine, AA, Speight, TM, Avery, GS (1982) Zimelidine: A review of its pharmacological properties and therapeutic efficacy in depressive illness. Drugs 24: 169206.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Horrocks, PM, Vicary, DJ, Rees, JE, Parkes, JD, Marsden, CD (1973) Anticholinergic withdrawl and benzhexol treatment in Parkinson’s disease. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 36: 936941.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hughes, RC, Polgar, JG, Weightman, D, Walton, JN (1971) Levodopa in Parkinsonism: the effects of withdrawal of anticholinergic drugs. Brit. Med. J. 2: 487491.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hunt, P, Kannengiesser, MH, Raynaud, JP (1974) Nomifensine a new potent inhibitor of dopamine uptake into synaptosomes from rat brain corpus striatum. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 26: 370371.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hunter, KR, Boakes, AJ, Lawrence, DR, Stern, GM (1970) Monoamine oxidase inhibitors and L-dopa. Brit. Med. J. 3: 388.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hurtig, HI (1980) Anticholinergics for Parkinson disease. Ann. Neurol. 7: 495.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jefferson, D, Jenner, P, Marsden, CD (1979) B-Adrenoreceptor antagonists in essential tremor. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 42: 904909.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jenner, P, Elliott, P, Clow, A, Reavil, C, Marsden, CD (1978) A comparison of in vitro and in vivo dopamine receptor antagonism produced by substituted benzamide drugs. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 30: 4648.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karobath, M, Diaz, J, Huttunen, M (1971) The effect of L-dopa on the concentration of tryptophan, tyrosine and serotonin in rat brain. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 14: 393396.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karoum, F, Chuang, L, Eisler, T, Clane, DB, Liebowitz, MR, Quitkin, FM, Klein, DF, Wyatt, RJ (1982) Metabolism of (-) deprenyl to amphetamine and methamphetamine may be responsible for deprenyl’s therapeutic benefit: A biochemical assessment. Neurology (NY) 32: 503509.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klawans, HL (1982) Behaviour alterations and the therapy of Parkinsonism. Clin Neuropharmacol 5 (Suppl 1): 529537.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klawans, HL, Rubovits, R (1972) Central Cholinergic – anticholinergic antagonism in Huntington’s chorea. Neurology 22: 107116.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klawans, HL, Topel, JL, Bergen, D (1975) Deanol in the treatment of levodopa-induced dyskinesias. Neurology 25: 290293.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Knoll, J (1978) The possible mechanism of action of (-) deprenyl in Parkinson’s disease. J. Neural. Transm. 43: 177198.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kolata, G (1982) Grafts correct brain damage. Science 27: 342344.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lang, AE (in press) Lithium and parkinsonism. Ann. Neurol.Google Scholar
Lebensohn, ZM, Jenkins, RB (1975) Improvement of Parkinsonism in depressed patients treated with ECT. Am. J. Psychiatry 132:283285.Google ScholarPubMed
Lees, AJ, Shaw, KM, Kohout, LJ, Stern, GM, Elsworth, JD, Sandler, M, Youdim, MBH (1977) Deprenyl in Parkinson’s disease. Lancet 2: 791796.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lees, AJ, Shaw, KM, Stern, GM (1978) Baclofen in Parkinson’s disease. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 41: 707708.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lees, AJ, Lander, CM, Stern, GM (1979) Tiapride in levodopa-induced involuntary movements. J. Neurol. Neurosurg Psychiatry 42:380383.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lhermitte, F, Signoret, JL, Agid, Y (1977) Étude des effets d’une molecule originale, le tiapride dans le traitement des mouvements anormaux d’origine extrapyramidale. Sem. Hop. Paris 53: 915.Google Scholar
Lieberman, A, Gopinathan, G (1982) Treatment of “on-off” phenomena with lithium. Ann. Neurol. 12: 402.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lindeboom, SF, Lakke, JPWF (1978) Deanol and physostigmine in the treatment of L-dopa-induced dyskinesias. Actaneurol. Scandinav. 58: 134138.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lloyd, KG, Shemen, L, Hornykiewicz, O (1977) Distribution of high affinity sodium-dependent (3H) gamma-aminobutyric acid (3H-GABA) binding in the human brain: alteration in Parkinson’s disease. Brain Res. 127: 269278.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mayeux, R, Stern, Y, Cote, L, Williams, JBW (1983) Clinical and biochemical features of depression in Parkinson’s disease. Ann. Neurol. 14: 135.Google Scholar
McDowell, FH, Papavasiliou, P, Sweet, R (1979) Long-term study and the effect of human growth hormone in Parkinsonian patients treated with levodopa. Adv. Neurol. 24: 475488.Google Scholar
Mendlewicz, J, Youdim, MBH (1983) L-deprenyl, a selective monoamine-oxidase Type B inhibitor in the treatment of depression: A double blind evaluation. Brit. J. Psychiat. 142: 508511.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, E (1974) Deanol in the treatment of levodopa-induced dyskinesias. Neurology 24: 116119.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, EM, Nieburg, HA (1974) L-tryptophan in the treatment of levodopa induced psychiatric disorders. Dis. Nerv. Syst. 35: 2023.Google ScholarPubMed
Muenter, MD, Sharpless, NS, Tyce, GM (1972) Plasma 3-O-methyldopa in L-DOPA therapy of Parkinson’s disease. Mayo. Clinic Proc. 47: 389395.Google Scholar
Muenter, MD, Sharpless, NS, Tyce, GM (1974) 3-O-methydopa in Parkinson’s disease. Adv. Neurol. 5: 309315.Google ScholarPubMed
Nagatsu, T, Kato, T, Nagatsu, I, Kondo, Y, Inagaki, S, Iizuka, R, Narabayashi, H (1979) Catecholamine related enzymes in the brain of patients with Parkinsonism and Wilson’s disease. Adv. Neurol. 24: 283292.Google Scholar
Narabayashi, H, Kondo, T, Hayashi, A, Suzuki, T, Nagatsu, T (1981) L-Threo-3, 4-Dihydroxyphenylserine treatment for akinesia and freezing in Parkinsonism. Proc. Japan Acad. 57: (Ser B): 351354.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Narabayashi, H, Kondo, T, Nagatsu, T, Sugimoto, T, Matsuura, S (1982) Tetrahydrobiopterin administration for Parkinsonian symptoms. Proc. Japan Soc. 58 (Ser B): 283287.Google Scholar
Nausieda, PA, Koller, WC, Weiner, WJ, Klawans, HL (1981) Pemoline-induced Chorea. Neurology (NY) 31: 356360.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nausieda, PA, Tanner, CM, Klawans, HL (1983) Serotonergically active agents in levodopa-induced psychiatric toxicity reactions. Adv. Neurol. 37: 2332.Google ScholarPubMed
Nausieda, PA, Weiner, WJ, Klawans, HL (1980) Dystonic foot response of Parkinsonism. Arch. Neurol. 37: 132136.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nutt, JG, Rosin, AJ, Eisler, T, Calne, DB, Chase, TN (1978) Effect of an opiate antagonist on movement disorders. Arch. Neurol. 35:810811.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nutt, J, William, A, Plotkin, C, Eng, N, Zeigler, M, Calne, DB (1979) Treatment of Parkinson’s disease with Sodium valproate: Clinical pharmacological and biochemical observations. J. Can. Neurol. Sci. 6:337343.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ordenstein, L (1867) Sur la paralysie agitante et la sclérose en plaque généralisé. Martinet, Paris.Google Scholar
Owen, DAL, Marsden, CD (1965) Effect of B-Blockade in parkinsonian tremor. Lancet 2: 12591262.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Papavasiliou, PS, Rosal, V (1979) Effects of Choline in patients with levodopa-induced dyskinesias. In: Nutrition and the Brain Vol. 5. Edited by Barbeau, A., Growden, JH, and Wurtman, RJ.Raven Press, New York pp. 335341.Google Scholar
Park, DM, Findley, LJ, Hanks, G, Sandler, M (1981) Nomifensine effect in Parkinsonian patients not receiving levodopa. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 44: 352354.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parkes, JD (1974) Amantadine. Adv. Drug. Res. 5: 1181.Google Scholar
Parkes, JD, Baxter, RC, Glabraith, A, Marsden, CD, Rees, JE (1973) Amantadine treatment in Parkinson’s disease. Adv. Neurol. 3: 105114.Google Scholar
Parkes, JD, Baxter, RC, Marsden, CD, Rees, JE (1974) Comparative trial of benzhexol, amantadine and levodopa in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 37: 422425.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parkes, JD, Tarsy, D, Marsden, CD, Bovill, KT, Phipps, JA, Rose, P, Asselman, P (1975) Amphetamines in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Pshyciatry 38: 232237.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pelton, EWII, Chase, TN (1975) L-dopa and the treatment of extrapyramidal disease. Adv. Pharmacol Chemotherapy 13: 253302.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perlow, MJ, Freed, WJ, Hoffer, BJ, Seiger, A, Olson, L, Wyatt, RJ (1979) Brain grafts reduce motor abnormalities produced by destruction of nigrostriatal dopamine system. Science 204: 643647.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Plotnikoff, NP, Kastin, AJ (1974) Pharmacological studies with a tripeptide, prolyl-leucyl-glycine amide. Arch. Int. Pharmacoldyn Ther. 211: 211224.Google ScholarPubMed
Pollard, H, Liorens-Cortes, C, Schwartz, JC (1977) Encephalin receptors on dopaminergic neurones in rat striatum. Nature 268: 745747.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Price, P, Baxter, RCH, Parkes, JD, Marsden, CD (1979) Opiate antagonists and Parkinson’s disease. Arch. Neurol. 36: 661.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Price, PA, Parkes, JD, Marsden, CD (1978) Solium valproate in the treatment of levodopa-induced dyskinesia. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 41: 702706.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Price, P, Parkes, JD, Marsden, CD (1978a) Tiapride in Parkinson’s disease Lancet 2: 1106.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Price, P, Schacter, M, Bédard, P, Parkes, JD, Marsden, CD (1981), DA2 receptor antagonists in Parkinson’s disease. In: Research progress in Parkinson’s disease. Edited by Rose, FC and Capildeo, R.Pitman Medical Tunbridge Wells pp. 318323.Google Scholar
Reches, A, Fahn, S (1982) 3-O-methyldopa blocks DOPA metabolism in rat corpus striatum. Ann. Neurol. 12: 267271.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reches, A, Fahn, S (1983) Lithium in the “on-off” phenomenom. Ann. Neurol. 14: 9192.Google Scholar
Reches, A, Jackson-Lewis, V, Fahn, S (1983) DL-threo-dihydroxyphenyl-serine as a precursor of norephinepherine. Ann. Neurol. 14: 137.Google Scholar
Reynolds, EP, Riederer, R, Sandler, M, Jellingter, K.Seeman, D (1978) Amphetamine and 2-phenylethylamine in post-mortem parkinsonian brain after (-) deprenyl administration. J. Neural. Transm. 43:271277.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rinne, UK (1978) Recent advances in research on parkinsonism. Acta. Neurol. Scandinav. 57 (suppl. 67): 77113.Google Scholar
Rinne, UK, Sonninen, V (1973) Brain catecholamines and their metabolites in Parkinsonian patients. Arch. Neurol. 28: 107110.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rinne, UK, Sonninen, V, Riekkinen, P, Laadsonen, H (1974) Postmortem findings in parkinsonian patients treated with L-dopa: Biochemical considerations. In: Current concepts in the treatment of Parkinsonism. edited by Yahr, MDRaven Press, New York pp. 211233.Google Scholar
Rinne, UK, Sürtola, T, Sonninen, V (1978) (-) Deprenyl treatment of on-off phenomena in Parkinson’s disease. J. Neural. Transm. 43: 253262.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rivera-Calimlim, L, Tandon, D, Anderson, F, Joynt, R (1977) The clinical picture and plasma levodopa metabolite profile of parkinsonian non-responders. Treatment with levodopa and decarboxylase inhibitor. Arch. Neurol. 34: 228232.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ruberg, M, Ploska, A, Javoy-Agid, F, Agid, Y (1982) Muscarinic binding and choline acetyltransferase activity in Parkinsonian subjects with reference to dementia. Brain Res. 232: 129139.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sadeh, M, Braham, J, Modan, M (1982) Effects of anticholinergic drugs on memory in Parkinson’s disease. Arch. Neurol. 39: 666667.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sandler, M, Stern, GM (1981) Deprenyl in Parkinson’s disease. In: Movements Disorders. Edited by Marsden, CD and Fahn, SButterworth Scientific, London pp. 166173.Google Scholar
Sandler, M, Youdim, MBH (1974) Monoamine oxidase: The present status. Int. Pharmacopsychiatr. 9: 2734.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schacter, M, Marsden, CD, Parkes, JD, Jenner, P, Testa, B (1980) Deprenyl in the management of response fluctuations in patients with Parkinson’s disease on levodopa. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 43:10161021.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schwab, RS (1961) Symptomatology and medical treatment of Parkinson’s disease. Int. J. Neurol. 2: 6175.Google ScholarPubMed
Schwab, RS, Chafety, ME (1955) Kemadrin in the treatment of Parkinsonism. Neurology (Minneap) 5: 273277.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schwab, RS, England, AC Jr. (1969) Amantadine, HCL(Symmetrel) and its relation to levo-dopa in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease. Trans. Am. Neurol. Assoc. 94: 8590.Google ScholarPubMed
Schwab, RS, England, AC, Poskanzer, DC, Young, RR (1969) Amantadine in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease. JAMA 208: 11681170.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schwab, RS, Poskanzer, DC, England, AC, Young, RR (1972) Amantadine in Parkinson’s disease. Review of more than two years experience. JAMA 222: 792795.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sharpless, NS, McCann, DS (1971) DOPA and 3-O-methydopa in cerebrospinal fluid in Parkinsonian patients during treatment with oral L-DOPA. Clin Chim Acta 31: 155169.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sheehy, MP, Schacter, M, Parkes, JD, Marsden, CD (1981) GABA-mimetics, Parkinson’s disease and other movement disorders. In: Research progress in Parkinson’s Disease. Edited by Rose, FC, Capildeo, R.Pitman Medical Tunbridge Wells pp. 309317.Google Scholar
Siegfried, J (1980) Is the neurosurgical treatment of Parkinson’s Disease still indicated? J. Neural. Trans, suppl. 16: 195198.Google Scholar
Sign, BK, Singh, A, Chusid, E (1983) Chorea in long-term use of pemoline. Ann. Neurol. 13: 218.Google Scholar
Stern, GM (1980) Current adjuvants to levodopa therapy. In: Parkinson’s disease-current progress, problems and management. Edited by Rinne, UK, Klinger, M and Stamm, GElsevier/North Holland Bio. Med. Press pp. 357361.Google Scholar
Stone, TW (1977) Evidence for a non-dopaminergic action of amantadine Neuro. Sci. Lett 4: 343346.Google Scholar
Strang, RR (1965) Kemadrin in the treatment of Parkinsonism: a double blind and one year follow-up study. Current Medicine and Drugs 5: 2732.Google ScholarPubMed
Strang, RR (1965a) Experiences with congentin in the treatment of Parkinsonism. Acta Neurol. Scandinav. 41: 413418.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Studler, JM, Javoy-Agid, F, Cesselin, F, Legrand, JC, Agid, Y (1982) CCK-8-Immunoreactivity distribution in human brain: selective decrease in the substantia nigra from Parkinsonian patients. Brain Research 243: 176179.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Syndulko, K, Gilden, ER.Hansch, EC, Potvin, AR, Tourtellotte, WW, Potvin, JH (1981) Decreased verbal memory associated with anticholinergic treatment in Parkinson’s disease patients. Int. J. Neurosci. 14: 6166.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tanner, CM, Goetz, CG, Klawans, HL (1982) Paraxysmal drenching sweats in idiopathic Parkinsonism: response to propranolol. Neurology (NY) 32 (2): A162.Google Scholar
Tarsy, D, Leopold, N, Sax, D (1973) Physostigmine in choreiform movement disorders. Neurology (Minneap) 23: 392393.Google Scholar
Tarsy, D, Parkes, JD, Marsden, CD (1975) Clonidine in Parkinson’s disease. Arch. Neurol. 32: 134136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tarsy, D, Parkes, JD, Marsden, CD (1975a) Metoclorpramide and pimozide in Parkinson’s disease and levodopa-induced dyskinesias. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 38: 331335.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Teychenne, PF, Park, DM, Findley, LJ, Fose, FC, Calne, DB (1976) Nomifensine in parkinsonism. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 39: 12191221.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Teychenne, PF, Ziegler, MG, Lake, CR, Enna, SJ (1982) Low CSF GABA in Parkinsonian patients who respond poorly to therapy or suffer from the “on-off” phenomenon. Ann. Neurol. II: 7679.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trabucchi, M, Bassi, S, Frattola, L (1982) Effect of naloxone on the “on-off” syndrome in patients receiving long-term le vodopa therapy. Arch. Neurol. 39: 120121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weintraub, MI, Van Woert, MH (1971) Reversal by le vodopa of cholinergic hypersensitivity in Parkinson’s disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 284:412415.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whitehouse, PJ, Hedreen, JC, White, CL, Price, DL (1983) Basal forebrain neurones in the dementia of Parkinson’s disease. Ann. Neurol. 13: 243248.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whitehouse, PJ, Price, DL, Clarke, AW, Coyle, JT, DeLong, MR (1981) Alzheimer’s disease: evidence for selective loss of cholinergic neurones in the Nucleus Basalis. Ann. Neurol. 10: 122126.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yahr, MD, (1978) Overview of present day treatment of Parkinson’s disease. J. Neural. Trasm. 43: 227238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yahr, MD, Clough, CG, Bergmann, KJ (1982) Cholinergic and dopaminergic mechanisms in Parkinson’s disease after long term levodopa administration Lancet 2: 709710.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yang, HYT, Neff, NH (1973) Beta-phelethylamine: A specific substrate for type B momoamine oxidase of brian. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 187:365371.Google Scholar