¹ Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR), Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC), and Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC), Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans (Government of Canada, 2014). <http://www.pre.ethics.gc.ca/pdf/eng/tcps2-2014/TCPS_2_FINAL_Web.pdf>

² Ibid.

³ Palys, Ted and Lowman, John, “Ethical and legal strategies for protecting confidential research information,” Canadian Journal of Law and Society 15, no. 1 (2000), 39–80;CrossRefGoogle Scholar “Inquest of Unknown Female,” October 20, 1994. Oral reasons for judgment of the Honourable L. W. Campbell , 91-240-0838, Burnaby, B.C.

⁴ The Wigmore criteria originally appeared in Wigmore, John Henry, A Treatise on the System of Evidence in Trials at Common Law, Including the Statutes and Judicial Decisions of All Jurisdictions of the United States, England, and Canada (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1905).CrossRefGoogle Scholar They require that: (1) The communications must originate in a confidence that they will not be disclosed; (2) This element of confidentiality must be essential to the full and satisfactory maintenance of the relation between the parties; (3) The relation must be one which in the opinion of the community ought to be sedulously fostered; and (4) The injury that would inure to the relation by the disclosure of the communications must be greater than the benefit thereby gained for the correct disposal of litigation (italics in the original).

⁵ Statistics Canada researchers and their participants are protected through a statute-based privilege outlined in the Statistics Act. See especially section 18 at <http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/S-19/FullText.html>

⁶ See R. v. Gruenke, [1991] 3 S.C.R. 263.

⁷ M. (A.) v. Ryan, [1997] 1 S.C.R. 157.

⁸ R. v. Gruenke, [1991] 3 S.C.R. 263

⁹ See, for example, Jackson, Michael and MacCrimmon, Marilyn, Research Confidentiality and Academic Privilege: A Legal Opinion (Burnaby, BC: Simon Fraser University, June 7, 1999). <http://www.sfu.ca/∼palys/JackMacOpinion.pdf>Google Scholar

¹⁰ Researchers should do this when a disclosure could bring harm to a participant; those criteria within the researcher’s control are relatively easy to address. See Palys and Lowman, “Strategies,” supra note 3.

¹¹ Palys, Ted and MacAlister, David, “Protecting research confidentiality via the Wigmore criteria: Some implications of Parent and Bruckert v The Queen and Luka Rocco Magnotta,” Canadian Journal of Law and Society 31, no. 3 (2016): 473–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹² Peters, Diane, “Quebec researcher in legal fight over research confidentiality,” University Affairs (July 2017). <http://www.universityaffairs.ca/news/news-article/quebec-researcher-legal-fight-research-confidentiality/>Google Scholar

¹³ Peters, Diane, “Another case involving research data confidentiality hits the courts,” University Affairs (April 2017). <http://www.universityaffairs.ca/news/news-article/another-case-involving-research-data-confidentiality-hits-courts/>Google Scholar

¹⁴ Ibid.

¹⁵ Palys and MacAlister, “Implications,” supra note 11.

¹⁶ See Popkin, Samuel, “Interview with Samuel Popkin,” in The price of dissent: testimonies to political repression in America , ed. Schultz, Bud and Schultz, Ruth (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 339–47;Google Scholar Scarce, Richard, “(No) trial (but) tribulations: when courts and ethnography conflict,” Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 23 (1994): 123–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁷ Palys and MacAlister, “Implications,” supra note 11.

¹⁸ Blomley, Nicholas and Davis, Steven, Russel Ogden decision review, (1998). <http://www.sfu.ca/∼palys/ogden.htm>Google Scholar

¹⁹ Article 5.1 of TCPS2 states that, “Institutions shall support their researchers in maintaining promises of confidentiality.” See CIHR et al., TCPS2, supra note 1.

²⁰ “Complaint Targets uOttawa for Failure to Defend Confidentiality,” CAUT/ACPPU Bulletin 60, no. 6 (2013). <https://bulletin-archives.caut.ca/bulletin/articles/2013/06/complaint-targets-uottawa-for-failure-to-defend-confidentiality>; see also Palys, Ted and Lowman, John, Protecting Research Confidentiality: What Happens When Law and Ethics Collide (Toronto: Lorimer, 2014).Google Scholar The University of Ottawa eventually agreed to pay half.

²¹ Peters, “Quebec Researcher,” supra note 13.

²² Peters, “Another case,” supra note 12.

²³ Palys and Lowman, “Strategies,” supra note 3; Palys, Ted and Lowman, John, “Protecting research confidentiality: Towards a research-participant shield law,” Canadian Journal of Law and Society, 21, no. 1 (2006), 163–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²⁴ SSHWC, A Briefing Note to PRE Regarding Statute-Based Protections for Research Participant Privacy and Confidentiality, prepared for PRE and the presidents of the granting agencies (2005). <https://www.sfu.ca/∼palys/SSHWC-CCBriefingNote-2005-Final.pdf>>Google Scholar

²⁵ SSHWC, SSHWC Recommendations Regarding Privacy and Confidentiality, prepared for PRE and the presidents of the granting agencies (2008). <http://www.pre.ethics.gc.ca/eng/archives/policy-politique/reports-rapports/sshwc-ctsh/#Back15>>Google Scholar

²⁶ Responses from the three associations are quoted at some length in Palys and Lowman, Protecting Research Confidentiality, supra note 20.

²⁷ Ivers, Aaren, “Without trust, research is impossible”: Administrative inertia in addressing legal threats to research confidentiality, Unpublished Master’s thesis, SFU School of Criminology (2017). <http://summit.sfu.ca/item/17470>>Google Scholar

²⁸ SSHWC, Briefing note, supra note 24, at p. 6.

²⁹ Adinoff, Bryon, Conley, Robert R., Taylor, Stephan F., and Chezem, Linda L., “Protecting confidentiality in human research,” American Journal of Psychiatry 170 no. 5 (2013), 466–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³⁰ Ibid.

³¹ Beskow, Laura M., Check, Devon K., Namey, Emily E., Dame, Lauren A., Lin, Li, Cooper, Alexandra, Weinfurt, Kevin P., and Wolf, Leslie E., “Institutional review boards’ use and understanding of Certificates of Confidentiality,” PLOS One 7, no. 9 (2012), 1–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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³⁵ Watson, DOJ Privacy Certificates, supra note 33.

³⁶ Cheryl Crawford Watson, JD, has been that one person at NIJ for well over a decade. We thank her for helping us better understand Privacy Certificates and how they are implemented.

³⁷ Wolf and Zandecki, “Sleeping better at night,” supra note 34.

³⁸ Haney-Caron, Emily, Goldstein, Naomi E.S., and DeMatteo, David, “Safe from subpoena: The importance of Certificates of Confidentiality to the viability and ethics of research,” Akron Law Review 48 (2015), 349–82.Google Scholar

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⁴⁰ For example, see Cecil, Joe S. and Wetherington, Gerald T., eds., Court-Ordered Disclosure of Academic Research: A Clash of Values of Science and Law, Special edition of Law and Contemporary Problems 59 no. 3 (1996);Google Scholar Lowman, John and Palys, Ted, “The ethics and law of confidentiality in criminal justice research: A comparison of Canada and the United States,” International Criminal Justice Review 11 no. 1 (2001), 1–33;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Palys and Lowman, Protecting Research Confidentiality, supra note 20.

⁴¹ See also Wolf et al., “Protecting data in law and practice,” supra note 33 on this point.

⁴² People v. Newman, 32 N.Y.2d 379 (1973).

⁴³ See Adinoff et al., “Protecting confidentiality,” supra note 29; Marshall, Mary Faith, Menikoff, Jerry, and Paltrow, Lynn M., “Perinatal substance abuse and human subjects research: Are privacy protections adequate?” Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews 9 (2003), 54–59;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Stiles, Paul G. and Petrila, John, “Research and confidentiality: Legal issues and risk management strategies,” Psychology, Public Policy and Law 17 no. 3 (2011), 333–56;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Wolf et al., “Protecting data in law and practice,” supra note 33.

⁴⁴ People v. Still 48 A.D.2d 366 (1975).

⁴⁵ Adinoff et al., “Protecting confidentiality,” supra note 29.

⁴⁶ Wolf et al., “Protecting data in law and practice,” supra note 33.

⁴⁷ Haney-Caron et al., Safe from subpoena, supra note 38.

⁴⁸ Adinoff et al., “Protecting confidentiality,” supra note 29.

⁴⁹ Wolf et al., “Protecting data in law and practice,” supra note 33.

⁵⁰ Adinoff et al., “Protecting confidentiality,” supra note 29 at p. 468.

⁵¹ State of North Carolina v. John Trosper Bradley, 179 N.C. App. 551 (N.C. Ct. App. 2006).

⁵² Ibid, at p. 1.

⁵³ Beskow, Laura M., Dame, Lauren, and Costello, E. Jane, “Certificates of confidentiality and compelled disclosure of data,” Science 322 (14 November 2008), 1054–55;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Beskow, Laura M., Dame, Lauren, and Costello, E. Jane, “Response,” Science 323 (6 March 2009), 1289–90.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ People v. Newman, supra note 42.

⁵⁵ Haney-Caron et al., “Safe from subpoena,” supra note 38.

⁵⁶ For example, Ibid.; Stiles and Petrila, “Legal issues,” supra note 43.

⁵⁷ Beskow et al., Response, supra note 53; Haney-Caron et al., “Safe from subpoena,” supra note 38.

⁵⁸ Gunn, Patrick P. and Joiner, Scott D., “Certificates should be strengthened,” Science 323 (6 March 2009), 1289.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁵⁹ Lowman and Palys, “Confidentiality in criminal justice research,” supra note 40; Palys and Lowman, Protecting Research Confidentiality, supra note 20.

⁶⁰ Jackson and MacCrimmon, Legal Opinion, supra note 9.

⁶¹ Adinoff et al., “Protecting confidentiality,” supra note 29; Beskow et al., “Certificates of confidentiality and compelled disclosure,” supra note 53; Beskow et al., “Institutional review boards,” supra note 31; Haney-Caron et al., “Safe from subpoena,” supra note 38; Wolf et al., “Legal counsels’ experiences,” supra note 39.

⁶² Haney-Caron et al., “Safe from subpoena,” supra note 38.

⁶³ Palys, Ted and Ivers, Aaren, “‘Hope for the Best, Plan for the Worst’: Understanding administrative inertia in developing confidentiality protection policies,” Journal of Empirical Research into Human Research Ethics, in press .Google Scholar

⁶⁴ Palys, Ted and Lowman, John, “Defending research confidentiality ‘to the extent the law allows’: Lessons from the Boston College subpoenas,” Journal of Academic Ethics 10 no. 4, (2012), 271–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁶⁵ CIHR et al., TCPS2, supra note 1.

⁶⁶ Palys, Ted and Lowman, John, “A Belfast Project Autopsy: Who can you trust?” in Qualitative Ethics in Practice, ed. Tolich, Martin (Walnut Creek, California: Left Coast Press, 2015), 109–19.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ 21 U.S.C. 301 et seq. See https://humansubjects.nih.gov/coc/faqs#general-info

⁶⁸ Beskow et al., “Response,” supra note 53; Currie, Peter M., “Balancing privacy protections with efficient research: Institutional review boards and the use of Certificates of Confidentiality,” IRB: Ethics & Human Research 27 no. 5 (2005), 7–12.;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Wolf and Zandecki, “Sleeping better at night,” supra note 34; Wolf et al., “Protecting data in law and practice,” supra note 33.

⁶⁹ <https://www.nij.gov/funding/humansubjects/Pages/welcome.aspx>

⁷⁰ 28 CFR Part 22.20(c) states, “The regulations do not apply to information gained regarding future criminal conduct.” See <https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/28/22.20>.

⁷¹ Melton, Gary B., “Certificates of Confidentiality under the Public Health Service Act: Strong protection but not enough,” Violence and Victims 5 no. 1, (1990), 67–71, at 68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁷² Currie, “Balancing privacy protections,” supra note 68.

⁷³ Wolf et al., “Protecting data in law and practice,” supra note 33.

⁷⁴ Beskow et al., “Institutional review boards,” supra note 31.

⁷⁵ Haney-Caron et al., “Safe from subpoena,” supra note 38, at 358.

⁷⁶ <https://www.parl.ca/DocumentViewer/en/42-1/bill/S-231/royal-assent>

⁷⁷ CIHR et al., TCPS2, supra note 1.

⁷⁸ Smith v. Jones, [1999] 1 S.C.R. 455.

⁷⁹ Ibid, at para. 44.

⁸⁰ <http://www.pre.ethics.gc.ca/eng/policy-politique/interpretations/privacy-privee/>

⁸¹ Wolf et al., “Protecting data in law and practice,” supra note 33, at 602.

⁸² PRE interpretation, supra note 80.

⁸³ Palys and Ivers, “Hope for the Best, Plan for the Worst,” supra note 63.

⁸⁴ See, for example, Palys and Lowman, Protecting Research Confidentiality, supra note 20.

⁸⁵ Bruckert, Christine, Wrong case, right decision: Lessons learned at the University of Ottawa, Paper presented at the School of Criminology, Simon Fraser University, 2015.Google Scholar

⁸⁶ Palys, Ted, The cost of free: Implications of contemporary Internet governance for the future of criminological research , Paper presented at the annual meetings of the Western Society of Criminology, Vancouver, BC, 2016. Speaking notes https://www.sfu.ca/∼palys/WSC-2016-TheCostOfFree.pdf>Google Scholar

⁸⁷ Palys and Lowman, Protecting Research Confidentiality, supra note 20.

⁸⁸ Palys and MacAlister, “Implications,” supra note 11.

⁸⁹ Peters, “Another case,” supra note 12.

⁹⁰ Bruckert, Wrong case, right decision, supra note 85.

⁹¹ CIHR et al., TCPS, supra note 1.