¹ Truth and Reconciliation Canada, Honouring the Truth, Reconciling for the Future: Summary of the final report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (Winnipeg: Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, 2015), hereafter TRC.

² First Nations Child and Family Caring Society of Canada et al. v. Attorney General of Canada (for the Minister of Indian and Northern Affairs Canada), 2018 CHRT 4, hereafter CHRT 2018; First Nations Child and Family Caring Society of Canada et al. v. Attorney General of Canada (for the Minister of Indian and Northern Affairs Canada), 2017 CHRT 14, hereafter CHRT 2017; First Nations Child and Family Caring Society of Canada et al. v. Attorney General of Canada (for the Minister of Indian and Northern Affairs Canada), 2016 CHRT 2, hereafter CHRT 2016.

³ “Metis in British Columbia set to take over responsibility for their own child welfare,” BC Gov News, June 7, 2018. https://news.gov.bc.ca/releases/2018CFD0042-001132.

⁴ Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada, Grand opening of the nations of Treaty 8 urban child and family services office (Ottawa, ON: Cision Canada, February 20, 2018). https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/grand-opening-of-the-nations-of-treaty-8-urban-child-and-family-services-office-674593133.html.

⁵ http://www.atikamekwsipi.com/fr/actualites/2018-01-29/entente-historique See also APTN News https://aptnnews.ca/2019/02/19/atikamekw-nation-in-quebec-inspiring-others-with-sovereign-youth-protection/.

⁶ Indigenous Services Canada, Government of Canada, with First Nations, Inuit and Métis Nation leaders, announce co-developed legislation will be introduced on Indigenous child and family services in early 2019 (Government of Canada, November 30, 2018), https://www.canada.ca/en/indigenous-services-canada/news/2018/11/government-of-canada-with-first-nations-inuit-and-metis-nation-leaders-announce-co-developed-legislation-will-be-introduced-on-indigenous-child-and.html; The Canadian Human Rights Tribunal (2019 CHRT 7) in its most recent decision regarding the issues raised in CHRT 2018, CHRT 2017, and CHRT 2016, that “The Panel stresses the importance of the First Nations’ self-determination and citizenship issues” (para. 91).

⁷ TRC, Calls 1–5.

⁸ Racine v Woods, [1983] 2 SCR 173 (Racine).

⁹ Ibid.

¹⁰ Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada, Statement of apology to former students of Indian Residential Schools by the Rt. Hon. Stephen Harper, Prime Minister of Canada (June 11, 2008). http://www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/eng/1100100015644/1100100015649. However, Prime Minister Harper would go on to say at a G20 Meeting on September 27, 2009, “We also have no history of colonialism. So we have all of the things that many people admire about the great powers but none of the things that threaten or bother them.”https://vancouversun.com/news/community-blogs/really-harper-canada-has-no-history-of-colonialism

¹¹ Remarks by Prime Minister Justin Trudeau to apologize on behalf of the Government of Canada to former students of the Newfoundland and Labrador residential schools (2017). https://pm.gc.ca/eng/news/2017/11/24/remarks-prime-minister-justin-trudeau-apologize-behalf-government-canada-former. This population had been left out of the Harper apology as it was felt, at the time, that Newfoundland and Labrador had not been a part of Canadian confederation during the time covered by the apology.

¹² The term was coined by Patrick Johnston, author of the 1983 report Native Children and the Child Welfare System (Toronto: James Lorimer Ltd., 1983). It refers to the mass removal of Aboriginal children from their families into the child welfare system, in most cases without the consent of their families or bands.

¹³ Brown v Canada (Attorney General) 2017 ONSC 215.

¹⁴ Sixties Scoop Apology by Premier R. Notley, May 28, 2018. https://www.alberta.ca/sixties-scoop-apology.aspx; Canadian Press, “A Text of Manitoba Premier Greg Selinger’s apology to ’60s Scoop adoptees,” City News, June 18, 2015. https://toronto.citynews.ca/2015/06/18/a-text-of-manitoba-premier-greg-selingers-apology-to-60s-scoop-adoptees/

¹⁵ TRC.

¹⁶ Racine v Woods, para 187.

¹⁷ “’60s Scoop Survivors: Leticia’s story,” Community Connection, April 2018, p. 1. http://www.nccaregina.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/NCCC-April-2018.pdf

¹⁸ United Nations, Convention on the Rights of the Child (Human Rights High Commissioner, 1989), Article 3(1). https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx.

¹⁹ Canadian Bar Association, Best Interests of the Child (Ottawa, ON: Canadian Bar Association, n.d.). https://www.cba.org/Publications-Resources/Practice-Tools/Child-Rights-Toolkit/theChild/Best-Interests-of-the-Child.

²⁰ An excellent discussion of this can be found in Lynn Marie Kohn, “Tracing the foundation of the Best Interest of the Child Standard in American jurisprudence,” 10 Journal of Law and Family Studies, (2008): 337–77.

²¹ URM (Re) 2018 ABPC 116. This decision is presently under appeal.

²² Racine v Woods.

²³ URM 2018.

²⁴ Ibid. at para. 138.

²⁵ DP v Alberta, 2016 ABPC 212.

²⁶ KG (Re) 2013 ABPC 237.

²⁷ Racine v Woods and TRC; N. Trocmé, D. Knoke, and C. Blackstock, “Pathways to overrepresentation of Aboriginal children in Canada’s child welfare system,” Social services review (December 2004): 577–600; B. Fallon, M. Chabot, J. D. Fluke, C. Blackstock, B. MacLaurin, and L. Tommyr, “Placement Decisions and Disparities among Aboriginal Children: Further analysis of the Canadian Incidence Study of Reported Child Abuse and Neglect part A: Comparisons of the 1998 and 2003 surveys,” Child Abuse and Neglect 37, no. 1 (2013): 47–60.

²⁸ Henry, D., Lévesque, L., and Lévesque, R., “The Lost Generation: First Nations Communities & White Middle-Class Adoption,” NAIITS Journal 3 (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.akha.org/content/missiondocuments/thelostgeneration.pdfGoogle Scholar

²⁹ Carney, R., “Aboriginal Residential Schools before Confederation: The early experience,” CCHA Historical Studies 61 (1995): 13–40.Google Scholar

³⁰ Henry, Lévesque, and Lévesque, “The Lost Generation,” 4.

³¹ Apology by Prime Minister S. Harper, 2008.

³² Henry, Lévesque, and Lévesque, “The Lost Generation”; see also A. Stevenson, “The Adoption of Frances T: Blood, belonging and Aboriginal transracial adoption in twentieth-century Canada,” Canadian Journal of History 50, no. 3 (2015): 469–91.

³³ C. Blackstock, “Residential Schools: Did they really close or just morph into child welfare?” Indigenous Law Journal 6, no. 1 (2007): 71–78. http://www.heinonline.org/HOL/Page?collection=journals&handle=hein.jou…

³⁴ Henry, Lévesque, and Lévesque, “The Lost Generation.”

³⁵ E. Kimelman, No quiet place. Review committee on Métis and Indian placements and adoptions (Winnipeg, MB: Kimelman, 1985), quoted in Henry, Lévesque, and Lévesque, “The Lost Generation.” https://digitalcollection.gov.mb.ca/awweb/pdfopener?smd=1&did=24788&md=1

³⁶ N. Trocmé, B. Fallon, B. MacLaurin, V. Sinha, T. Black, E. Fast, C. Festinier, et al., Canadian incidence study of reported child abuse and neglect 2008 (CIS-2008): Major findings (Ottawa, ON: Public Health Agency of Canada, 2010). http://cwrp.ca/sites/default/files/publications/en/CIS-2008-rprt-eng.pdf.

³⁷ Henry, Lévesque, and Lévesque, “The Lost Generation.”

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⁴⁰ Ibid., 10.

⁴¹ Ibid.

⁴² CHRT 2016.

⁴³ CHRT 2018.

⁴⁴ Brown v Canada.

⁴⁵ Ibid.

⁴⁶ Racine v Woods.

⁴⁷ Ibid.

⁴⁸ Brown v Canada. Indented paragraph cites: S. Fournier and E. Crey, Stolen from our Embrace: The Abduction of First Nations Children and the Restoration of Aboriginal Communities (Vancouver, BC: Douglas and McIntyre, 1997). Note: Crey has been corrected from the decision which referred to Grey.

⁴⁹ T. Kalusic, “The Ultimate Betrayal: Claiming and re-claiming cultural identity,” Atlantis 29, no. 2 (2005): 23–38. R. Paradis, The Sixties Scoop: A literary review prepared for the Manitoba Association of Friendship Centers (Winnipeg, MB: Friendship Centre, n.d.), http://www.friendshipcentres.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/The-Sixties-Scoop-Literature-Review.pdf; R. Sinclair, “Identity lost and found: Lessons from the Sixties Scoop,” First Peoples Child and Family Review 3, no. 1 (2007): 65–82.

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¹¹⁸ Lindstrom and Choate, Nistawatsiman.

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¹²⁷ Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Bridging the Cultural Divide.

¹²⁸ TRC.

¹²⁹ CHRT 2018; CHRT 2017; CHRT 2016.

¹³⁰ Alberta Children’s Services. A Stronger, Safer Tomorrow: A Public Action Plan for the Ministerial Panel on Child Intervention’s Final Recommendations (Edmonton, AB: Alberta Children’s Services, 2018).

¹³¹ Choate and Engstrom, “The ‘Good Enough’ Parent”; Choate & Lindstrom, “Inappropriate application.”

¹³² Lindstrom and Choate, Nistawatsiman.

¹³³ L. Wexler, “The Importance of Identity, History and Culture in the Wellbeing of Indigenous Youth,” The Journal of the History of Childhood and Youth 2, no. 2 (2009): 267–76; L. M. Hunter, J. Logan, J. Goulet, and S. Barton, “Aboriginal Healing: Regaining balance and culture,” Journal of Transcultural Nursing 17, no. 1 (January 2006): 13–22; A. Poonwassie and A. Charte, An Aboriginal Worldview of Helping: Empowering approaches,” Canadian Journal of Counselling/Revue canadienne de counseling 35, no. 1 (2001): 63–73.

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¹³⁵ Choate and Engstrom, “The ‘Good Enough’ Parent.”

¹³⁶ Ewart v Canada.

¹³⁷ Choate & McKenzie, “Psychometrics in Capacity Assessments.”

¹³⁸ Racine v Woods.

¹³⁹ A. Stevenson, “The Adoption of Frances T.”

¹⁴⁰ Ibid.

¹⁴¹ Racine v Woods.

¹⁴² Mount Royal University is located on the traditional lands of the Niitsitapi, Blackfoot Confederacy, and the peoples of Treaty 7, which include the Siksika, the Piikani, the Kainai, the Tsuut’ina, and the Stoney Nakoda First Nations. In addition, the City of Calgary is homeland to Metis Nation Region 3.