^{page 17 Note 1} Duffy, K., Human Dignity and Social Exclusion: Opportunity and Risk: Trends of Social Exclusion in Europe, Council of Europe, HDSE, (1998) at 1.Google Scholar

^{page 17 Note 2} The correspondents for the first report were: Feliciana Rajevska, Latvia; Anu Narusk, Estonia, Rasa Alisauskiene, Lithuania; Ludmilla Dziewiecka-Bokun, Poland; Magda Kotnková, Czech Republic; Katalin Lévai, Hungary; Moyca Novak, Slovenia; Iveta Radicová, Slovak Republic; Teuta Starava, Albania; Catalin Zamfir, Romania; Tudor Danii, Moldova; Dragana Avramov (housing); Cezary Wlodarczyk (health); Dominique Meurs and Joseph Prelis (employment); Frances Kessler (social protection questionnaire), Georgios Tsiakalos (education questionnaire)

^{page 18 Note 3} Phase 2 was constructed around four thematic groups with the following foci:

1. The implementation of legal rights of vulnerable groups;

2. Self-help and social work intervention to support the family and personal networks of the most severely disadvantaged individuals and families;

3. The role of the voluntary sector and the social responsibilities of businesses;

4. The role of local communities and public-private partnerships at local level.

Four panels each of three to four persons were responsible for preparation of synthetic reports on the four themes (available from the Council of Europe) following ‘Hearings’ during which evidence was submitted to the panels by invited interested parties, either orally during ‘Hearing Days’, or in documentary form. The priority was to enable representatives of the least advantaged groups to submit evidence. Whereas Phase 1 correspondents were academics, panellists for Phase 2 included representatives of grassroots self-organisations, larger NGOs, municipalities and businesses.

^{page 18 Note 4} The report was the first attempt to get a perspective on the risks of social exclusion for the least advantaged groups in ‘transition’ countries. It seems likely that a typology which distinguishes between ‘Baltic’, ‘Balkan’ and ‘central European’ countries, would prove a useful starting point for future comparative work. Further categories are likely to be necessary to include east European and central Asian countries.

^{page 18 Note 5} Given the particularly pressing problems in many of the countries of central and eastern Europe the Council of Europe has established a specific Social Cohesion Development Unit. With financial assistance from the Council of Europe Social Development Bank, this Division is engaged in supporting practical projects under a number of key themes. The Bank's change of name signals its change in direction and its new focus on promoting social cohesion.

^{page 19 Note 6} Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, Draft Joint Report on Social Inclusion, online: The European Union http://www.Europa.eu.int p.7, p. 25, p. 39, p. 40, p. 57 (accessed 21 October 2001).

^{page 19 Note 7} Corden, A. and Duffy, K., “Human Dignity and Social Exclusion” in Sykes, R. and Alcock, P., eds., Developments in European Social Policy, Convergence and Diversity, (Bristol, UK: Policy Press, 1998) at 95.Google Scholar

^{page 20 Note 8} Luhmann, N., Risk: A Sociological Tlieory, trans. (New York: Rhodes Barrett, Walter de Gruyter, 1993) at 222–223.Google Scholar

^{page 20 Note 9} For a review of the concept see Duffy, K., “Free Markets, Poverty and Social Exclusion” in Avramov, A., ed., Coping with Homelessness: Problems to be Tackled and Best Practice, (London: Ashgate, 1999) 52.Google Scholar

^{page 20 Note 10} Oonnison, D., quoted in Byrne, D., Social Exclusion, (Buckingham: Open University Press, 1999).Google Scholar

^{page 20 Note 11} Xiberras, M., Théories de l'exclusion sociale (Paris: Meridiens Klincksiek, 1993).Google Scholar

^{page 20 Note 12} The HDSE working definition of social exclusion can be found in Duffy, K., Final Report of the First Seminar on Social Exclusion and Human Dignity in Western Europe (Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 1996) at 13.Google Scholar

^{page 21 Note 13} See, for example, Evers, A., and Wintersberger, H., eds., Shifts in the Welfare Mix: Their Impact on Work, Social Services and Welfare Policies (Vienna: Eurosocial, 1988).Google Scholar

^{page 22 Note 14} Carey, D., ed., (1998) Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: What Contribution Can We Make? (London: DFID, 1998) at 7.Google Scholar Carey discusses the following kinds of ‘capital’:

- Natural capital: natural resources;

- Social capital: social resources, networks, membership groups, trust relations, access to wider institutions of society (important in pursuit of livelihoods);

- Human capital: skills, knowledge, ability to labour and good health (important in pursuing different livelihood strategies);

- Financial capital: financial resources such as savings, credit, remittances, pensions which provide different livelihood options.

^{page 22 Note 15} Scoones quoted in Carey, ibid., raised several issues relating to livelihood assets that could be used to develop thinking on effective policies to combat multi-dimensional risk. These issues include:

- Sequencing: is one type of capital/resource a prerequisite for gaining access to others?

- Substitution: can one resource be substituted for another? Or are they complementary?

- Clustering: if you have access to one type of capital, do you usually have access to others? Or, are particular groups of people or particular strategies associated with particular clusters?

- Access: this is socially differentiated, dependant on institutional arrangements.

- Trade-offs: in pursuing a particular portfolio of particular livelihood strategies, what are the trade-offs faced by different people with different access to different types of livelihood resources?

- Trends: What are the trends in terms of the availability of different types of livelihood resources? How are different capital assets being depleted and accumulated and by whom? What are the access trends? What new livelihood resources are being created through environmental, economic and social change?

^{page 22 Note 16} See Ashley, C. and Carney, D., Sustainable Livelihoods: Lessons from Early Experience, (London, DfID, 1999).Google Scholar

^{page 23 Note 17} See, for example, Duffy, K., “Employment Integration for the Least Advantaged People in the UK: Opportunities and Risks” in Seymour, J., ed., Poverty in Plenty: A Human Development Report for the UK (London: Earthscan, 2000) 81.Google Scholar

^{page 23 Note 18} Jensen, Jane quoted in Bernard, P., Social Cohesion - A Critique, Canadian Policy Research Networks (CPRN) Discussion Paper No. F|09 (December 1999) at 13Google Scholar.

^{page 23 Note 19} Bernard, ibid. at 15.

^{page 23 Note 20} ATD Fourth World (UK), Talk with us, not at us, (London: ATD Fourth World, 1996).Google Scholar

^{page 24 Note 21} A quotation from Père Joseph Wresinski is inscribed in the stone “Là où des hommes sont condamnés à vivre dans la misère, les droits de l'homme sont violés. S'unir pour les faire respecter est un devoir sacré”.

^{page 24 Note 22} Council of Europe, Steering Committee on Social Policy, 9^th Meeting, Strasbourg 2–5 Nov., PS-EV (1992) at 8.

^{page 24 Note 23} Ibid. at 75.

^{page 24 Note 24} Robbins, D., ed., (1994) Observatory on National Policies to Combat Social Exclusion, Third Annual Report (Brussels: Commission of the European Communities, Directorate-General V, 1994).Google Scholar

^{page 24 Note 25} E. Vogel-Polsky (1993) Terms of Reference for the Paper Presenting the Work of the Rights/Exclusion Group on Asserting the Rights of the Most Underprivileged in the EEC, paper (unpublished) presented by the Expert Committee on Social Rights, Brussels, Commission of the European Communities, Directorate General V.

^{page 24 Note 26} Information about the Platform of Social NGOs can be found, online: Citizens' Assembly 2004 http://www.socialplatform.org.

^{page 24 Note 27} Commission of the European Communities, Reinforcing Political Union and Preparing for Enlargement, (90 final), (Brussels: COM, 1996) at 4.Google Scholar

^{page 25 Note 28} Commission of the European Communities (1997) Consolidated Version of the Treaty Establishing the European Community (Treaty of Amsterdam 1997), Europa.Google ScholarCommission of the European Communities, Reinforcing Political Union and Preparing for Enlargement, (90 final), (Brussels: COM, 1996) at 4.Google Scholar

^{page 25 Note 29} Ferge, Z., “The Changed Welfare Paradigm: The Individualization of the Social” (1997) 31 (1) Social Policy and Administration 20 at 23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

^{page 25 Note 30} Ibid. at 27.

^{page 25 Note 31} In 2001, the European Commission hosted a large conference on social quality “Social and Labour Market Policies: Investing in Quality”, Brussels 22–23 February.

^{page 25 Note 32} See for example, Beck, W.L., van der Maesen, F. Thomas, and Walker, A, eds., Social Quality: A vision for Europe (The Hague: Klewer Law. 2001).Google Scholar

^{page 25 Note 33} The European Foundation on Social Quality can be found online: http://www.sociaiquality.nl/navbalk.htm

^{page 25 Note 34} Amsterdam Declaration on the Social Quality of Europe, Amsterdam, 10 June 1997.

^{page 26 Note 35} Sachs, I., Searching for New Development Strategies, Most policy paper No.1 (Paris: UNESCO, 1995).Google Scholar

^{page 26 Note 36} UNICEF, The State of the World's Children 2000, (Geneva: UNICEF, 2000).Google Scholar

^{page 26 Note 37} Ibid. at 113.

^{page 27 Note 38} For example, UNDP, Transition 1999: Human Development Report for Central and Eastern Europe and the CIS (New York: UNDP, 1999).

^{page 28 Note 39} Beck et al., supra note 32, at 30–33.

^{page 28 Note 40} Gershuny, J., “Labour market exclusion and labour market marginality,” (Employment and exclusion: What governments can do Conference, London School of Economics, May 6, 1998)Google Scholar [unpublished]. This paper analyses the results of the first two waves of the European Community Household Panel.

^{page 29 Note 41} See for example, Denscombe, M. and Drucquer, N., “Critical Incidents and Invulnerability to Risk: Young people's experience of serious health related incidents and their willingness to take health risks” (1999) 1:2Health, Risk and Society 195CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Rhodes, T. & Quirk, A., “Drug users' sexual relationships and the social organisation of risk: the sexual relationship as a site of risk management” (1998) 46 Social Science ά Medicine 157.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

^{page 29 Note 42} See for example, WHO mortality database online: http://www.who.ch, and UNICEF, Central and Eastern Europe in Transition, Public Policy and Social Conditions; Crisis in Mortality, Health And Nutrition (update). Economies in Transition Studies; Regional Monitoring Report no. 2 (Florence: UNICEF, August 1994).

^{page 29 Note 43} See Table G7.1 in OECD, Society at a Glance, Social Indicators (OECD: Paris, 2001) at 35.Google Scholar

^{page 30 Note 44} Ibid. at 64–65.

^{page 30 Note 45} Commission of the European Communities, Social Protection in the European Union: Modernisation and Improvement (Brussels: CEC, 1997) at 102.Google Scholar

^{page 30 Note 46} Ibid. at 5.

^{page 31 Note 47} This old economics debate which began with Keynes is in some ways paralleled by the modern sociological debate about risk society, in particular the work of Beck on ‘reflexive modernisation.’ See Keynes, J.M., The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money (London: Macmillan, 1993)Google Scholar and Beck, U., Giddens, A., & Lash, S., Reflexive modernization: politics, tradition and aesthetics in the modern social order (Oxford: Polity Press, 1994).Google Scholar

^{page 32 Note 48} Beck, U., World Risk Society (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1999).Google Scholar

^{page 33 Note 49} Greenberg, M.et al., “Welfare Reauthorisation: An Early Guide to the Issues” paper prepared for the First Draft Working Session, David and Lucille Packard Foundation, The impact of Welfare Reform on Children (Washington, Centre for Law and Social Policy, 2000) online: http://www.Clasp.org/pubs/TANF/packa.htmGoogle Scholar, date accessed: 9 April 2001.

^{page 33 Note 50} According to Greenberg, the aims of the programme were:

- To reform welfare through promoting work and time-limited rights to benefits;

- To cut welfare costs of income maintenance;

- To promote parental responsibility;

- To address births outside marriage;

- To promote devolution because federal programmes had ‘failed’.

^{page 34 Note 51} OECD, The Battle against Exclusion vol. 1 - Social Assistance in Australia, Finland, Sweden and the United Kingdom (1998)Google Scholar; OECD, The Battle against Exclusion, vol. 2 - Social Assistance in Belgium, the Czech Republic, the Netherlands and Norway (1999)Google Scholar; OECD, The Battle against Exclusion, vol. 3 - Social Assistance in Canada and Switzerland (1999).Google Scholar

^{page 35 Note 52} Brand, R., “Les temps forts” report to Final Conference of the HDSE Project (Helsinki, 1998).Google Scholar This paper is available from the Council of Europe.

^{page 35 Note 53} ‘Triple A’ is a term sometimes used in the UK to refer to top-quality products or services.

^{page 36 Note 54} See the concerns expressed, in, for example, OECD, The Reform of Health Care Systems: a Review of Seventeen OECD Countries, Health Policy Studies No. 5 (Paris: OECD, 1994)Google Scholar; and OECD, New Orientations For Social Policy, Social Policy Studies 7, No 12 (Paris: OECD 1994).Google Scholar

^{page 37 Note 55} Platform of Social NGOs, “Social Protection: Adapting to Changing Needs (June 1998)” in Social Protection: Meeting the Challenges of the New Century (Brussels: October 2000).Google Scholar

^{page 38 Note 56} Declaration 23 of the Treaty on European Union, 1992.

^{page 39 Note 57} Beck, U., World Risk Society (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1999) at 20–21.Google Scholar

^{page 39 Note 58} Duffy, K., Combating Poverty and Exclusion: Barriers and Bridges to Social Integration: A Summary of the Results of the Survey of EAPN Committee Members (Birmingham, England: EAPN. 1999).Google Scholar

^{page 39 Note 59} Putnam, R.D., Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992).Google Scholar

^{page 39 Note 60} Novak, M., “Slovenian report” in The Human Dignity and Social Exclusion Initiative (Council of Europe, Strasbourg, 1997).Google Scholar