Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rdxmf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-30T23:19:11.122Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

SINGLE FACTOR MORTALITY, THE ESSENCE OF BIOLOGICAL CONTROL, AND ITS VALIDATION, IN THE FIELD

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  31 May 2012

S. E. Flanders
S. E. Flanders
Affiliation:
Division of Biological Control, Citrus Research Center and Agricultural Experiment Station, University of California, Riverside
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

A shift in the average number of an organism from an economic to a non-economic density, the goal of biological control, is usually brought about by the addition to the ecosystem of exotic "key" factors whose lethal action is more efficient and broader in scope than that of the mortality factors already operating.Such a shift in the homeostasis of a pest population can occur only when its protection from the lethal action of key factors is fortuitous. With fortuitous protection (in contrast to absolute protection) host-searching by parasite or predator populations is so unrestricted by physical barriers that no portion of the target population is continuously immune to attack.In many instances after the attainment of low-density homeostasis the controlling action of the added key factor does not appear to be either supplemental to or superimposed on the total pest mortality that had prevailed in the ecosystem but largely a substitution for that mortality through its displacement and greatly amplified replacement. Means for verifying the responsible key factor in a given locality following the importation and establishment of a possible key factor and observations on hierarchies of such factors are reviewed.

Type
Articles
Information
The Canadian Entomologist , Volume 103 , Issue 10 , October 1971 , pp. 1351 - 1362
Copyright
Copyright © Entomological Society of Canada 1971

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adlung, K. G. 1966. A critical evaluation of the European research on use of red wood ants (Formica rufa group) for the protection of forests against harmful insects. Z. angew. Ent. 57: 167–189.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bartlett, B. R. 1951. The action of certain “inert” dust materials on parasitic Hymenoptera. J. econ. Ent. 44: 891–896.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clausen, C. P. 1939. Some phases of biological control work applicable to sugarcane insect problems. Proc. int. Soc. Sugarcane Technol. 6: 421–426.Google Scholar
Compere, H. 1940. Parasites of the black scale, Saissetia oleae, in Africa. Hilgardia 13: 387–425.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Compere, H. 1969. Changing trends and objectives in biological control. Proc. 1st int. Citrus Symp., Vol. 2, pp. 755–764.Google Scholar
DeBach, P. and Sundby, B. A.. 1963. Competitive displacement between ecological homologues. Hilgardia 34: 105–166.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flanders, S. E. 1941. Dust as an inhibiting factor in the reproduction of insects. J. econ. Ent. 34: 470–472.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flanders, S. E. 1942. Metaphycus helvolus, an encytrid parasite of the black scale. J. econ. Ent. 35: 690–698.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flanders, S. E. 1945. Coincident infestations of Aonidiella citrina and Coccus hesperidum, a result of ant activity. J. econ. Ent. 38: 711–712.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flanders, S. E. 1947. Elements of host discovery as exemplified by the parasitic Hymenoptera. Ecology 28: 299–309.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flanders, S. E. 1948. Biological control of the yellow scale. Calif. Citrograph 34: 56, 76–77.Google Scholar
Flanders, S. E. 1951. The role of the ant on the biological control of homopterous insects. Can. Ent. 83: 93–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flanders, S. E. 1968. Mechanisms of population homeostasis in Anagasta ecosystems. Hilgardia 39: 367–404.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flanders, S. E. 1969. Herbert D. Smith's observations on citrus blackfly parasites in India and Mexico and the correlated circumstances. Can. Ent. 101: 467–480.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flanders, S. E. and Gressitt, J. L.. 1958. The natural control of California red scale in China. Quart. Bull., Calif. Dep. Agric. 47: 23–33.Google Scholar
Flanders, S. E., Gressitt, J. L., and Fisher, T. W.. 1958. Casca chinensis, an internal parasite of California red scale. Hilgardia 28: 65–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fleschner, C. A. 1952. Host plant resistance as a factor influencing population density of citrus red mites on orchard trees. J. econ. Ent. 45: 687–695.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fleschner, C. A. 1958. Field approaches to population studies of tetranychid mites on citrus and avocado in California. Proc. 10th int. Congr. Ent., Vol. 4, pp. 699–741.Google Scholar
Heim, F. 1898. The biologic relations between plants and ants. A. Rep. Smithson. Inst. (1896), pp. 411–455.Google Scholar
Morris, R. F. 1959. Single factor analyses in population dynamics. Ecology 40: 580–588.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muir, F. 1914. Presidential Address. Proc. Hawaii. ent. Soc. 3: 28–42.Google Scholar
Nicholson, A. J. 1933. The balance of animal populations. J. anim. Ecol. 2 (suppl.): 132–178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, H. D., Maltby, H. L., and Jiménez, E. J.. 1964. Biological control of the citrus blackfly in Mexico. U.S. Dep. Agric. Tech. Bull. 1311, 30 pp.Google Scholar
Smith, H. S. 1929. Multiple parasitism: Its relation to the biological control of insect pests. Bull. ent. Res. 20: 141–149.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, H. S. 1933. The influence of civilization on the insect fauna by purposeful introductions. Ann. ent. Soc. Am. 26: 518–528.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, H.S. 1939. Insect populations in relation to biological control. Ecol. Monogr. 9: 311–320.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, H. S. and Compere, H.. 1928. A preliminary report on the insect parasites of the black scale, Saissetia oleae (Bern.). Univ. Calif. Publs Ent. 4: 231–334.Google Scholar
Smith, H. S., Flanders, S. E., and Basinger, A. J.. 1945. The control of Saissetia oleae by Metaphycus helvolus (Compere). Calif. mon. Bill., Calif. Dep. Agric. 34: 93–94.Google Scholar
Thompson, W. R. 1930. The principles of biological control. Ann. appl. Biol. 7: 306–388.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Way, M. J. 1963. Mutualism between ants and honeydew-producing Homoptera. A. Rev. Ent. 8: 307–344.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wheeler, W. M. 1926. The natural history of ants by Renée Antoine Ferchault deRéeaumur (Translated and annotated). A. A. Knopf. New York. 280 pp.Google Scholar
Williams, F. X. 1931. The insects and other invertebrates of Hawaiian sugar cane fields. Exp. Stn Hawaii. Sugar Planters Assoc. Honolulu. 400 pp.Google Scholar