Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-lnqnp Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-28T08:14:57.428Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

MOSQUITOES AND HUMAN DISEASE IN CANADA12

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  31 May 2012

J. McLintock  and
J. Iversen
J. McLintock
Affiliation:
Canada Department of Agriculture, Research Station, University Campus, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan
J. Iversen
Affiliation:
Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In the early 19th century, malaria was indigenous in Upper Canada (Ontario), but indigenous infection has not been seen in Canada since about 1909. For many years mosquitoes were regarded principally as harmless pests of man and domestic animals until the recognition of a number of mosquito-borne viruses. At present, mosquitoes in Canada are known to be involved in the maintenance or spread of at least seven arboviruses. One of these viruses, western equine encephalomyelitis, occurs in epidemics in man and horses at irregular intervals in the western provinces. The extent to which the other arboviruses might cause disease in man or domestic animals in Canada is unknown at present but California encephalitis virus infection rates can be high in human residents of central Saskatchewan, central Alberta, and southern British Columbia. On the basis of observations made in the United States, St. Louis encephalitis virus could pose a threat to public health in Canada whereas the Cache Valley virus might involve livestock. Even if man and livestock are not involved at present in epidemics of disease due to these viruses, the presence of the viruses and their vectors should be of concern. Epidemics could arise either from amplification of causal viruses already present in indigenous foci or by amplification of viruses from new enzootic foci recently established by extension of the geographic ranges of the viruses. Evidence indicating which category each of the known viruses in Saskatchewan belongs to is briefly reviewed. Japanese B encephalitis virus has not yet been seen in Canada but the environmental prerequisites for an epidemic or epizootic due to this virus appear to be present and awaiting the arrival of the virus.

Type
Articles
Information
The Canadian Entomologist , Volume 107 , Issue 7 , July 1975 , pp. 695 - 704
Copyright
Copyright © Entomological Society of Canada 1975

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Burton, A. N. and McLintock, J.. 1970. Further evidence of western encephalitis infection in Saskatchewan mammals and birds and in reindeer in Northern Canada. Can. vet. J. 11: 232–235.Google ScholarPubMed
Burton, A. N., McLintock, J., and Francy, D. B.. 1973. Isolation of St. Louis encephalitis and Cache Valley viruses from Saskatchewan mosquitoes. Can. J. publ. Hlth 64: 368–373.Google ScholarPubMed
Cameron, G. D. W. 1942. Western equine encephalitis. Can. publ. Hlth J. 33: 383–387.Google Scholar
Chamberlain, R. W. 1958. Vector relationships of the arthropod-borne encephalitides in North America. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 70: 312–319.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chant, G. D., Baldwin, W. F., and Forster, L.. 1973. Occurrence of Culiseta melanura (Diptera: Culicidae) in Canada. Can. Ent. 105: 1359.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clapp, J. B. 1972. Western equine encephalomyelitis — 1972. Vet. Brch, Br. Columb. Dep. Agric.Google Scholar
Clapp, J. B. 1973. Western equine encephalomyelitis — 1973. Vet. Brch, Br. Columb. Dep. Agric.Google Scholar
Clarke, D. H. and Casals, J.. 1965. Arboviruses; group B, pp. 606–658. In Horsfall, F. L. Jr., and Tamm, I. (Eds.), Viral and rickettsial infections of man. J. B. Lippincott, Philadelphia and Toronto. 4th ed.Google Scholar
Donovan, C. R. and Bowman, M.. 1942. Some epidemiological features of poliomyelitis and encephalitis, Manitoba, 1941. Can. publ. Hlth J. 33: 246–257.Google Scholar
Drummond, A. T. 1893. Some notes on the Rideau Canal, the sources of its water supply and its early history, Can. Rec. Sci. 5: 459–471.Google Scholar
Ellis, R. A. and Wood, D. M.. 1974. First Canadian record of Corethrella brakeleyi (Diptera: Chaoboridae). Can. Ent. 106: 221–222.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Encyclopedia Canadiana. 1960. Baldoon, Vol. 1, p. 285, The Canadiana Co., Ltd., Ottawa.Google Scholar
Fawcett, M. J. (Ed.). 1974. The 1974 Corpus Almanac of Canada. Corpus Publishers Services Ltd., Toronto.Google Scholar
Fedder, M. L. et al. , 1971. Materials on epidemiological evaluation of natural populations of Aedes togoi in Soviet Maritime Territory. (In Russian; summary in English.) Medskaya Parazit. 40: 301–307.Google Scholar
Ferguson, F. F. 1954. Biological factors in the transmission of American arthropod-borne virus encephalitides. Publ. Hlth Monogr. 23.Google Scholar
Fisk, G. H. 1931. Malaria and the Anopheles mosquito in Canada. Can. med. Ass. J. 25: 679–683.Google ScholarPubMed
Fulton, J. S. 1938. A report of two outbreaks of equine encephalomyelitis in Saskatchewan. Can. J. comp. Med. 2: 39–46.Google ScholarPubMed
Gibson, A. 1934. Mosquito suppression work in Canada in 1933. Proc. 21st A. Mtg. N.J. Mosq. Exterm. Ass., pp. 102–112.Google Scholar
Gibson, A. 1940. Mosquito suppression work in Canada in 1939. Proc. 27th A. Mtg. N.J. Mosq. Exterm. Ass., pp. 44–53.Google Scholar
Gray, J. M. 1963. Lord Selkirk of Red River. Macmillan, Toronto. 388 pp.Google Scholar
Hale, T. R. and Halpenny, C. W.. 1953. Malaria in Korean veterans. Can. med. Ass. J. 68: 444–448.Google ScholarPubMed
Hall, R. R., McKiel, J. A., and Brown, J. H.. 1968. Isolation of Turlock virus and a member of the Bunyamwera group, probably Cache Valley virus, from Alberta mosquitoes. Can. J. publ. Hlth 59: 159–160.Google Scholar
Hall, R. R. et al. , 1969. Arboviruses from Saskatchewan mosquitoes — Isolation of a member of the Flanders-Hart Park group and of a strain as yet unidentified. Can. J. Publ. Hlth 60: 486–488.Google ScholarPubMed
Hammon, W. McD. and Reeves, W. C.. 1943. Laboratory transmission of western equine encephalomyelitis virus by mosquitoes of the genera Culex and Culiseta. J. exp. Med. 78: 425–434.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hammon, W. McD. et al. , 1941. Isolation of the viruses of western equine and St. Louis encephalitis from Culex tarsalis mosquitoes. Science 94: 328–330.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harrison, R. J. and Cousineau, G.. 1973. Les moustiques au Quebec, leur importance medicale, veterinaire, economique et la necessite d'un programme de demoustication. Ann. ent. Soc. Queb. 18: 138–146.Google Scholar
Haufe, W. O. 1952. Observations on the biology of mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) at Goose Bay, Labrador. Can. Ent. 84: 254–263.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hayles, L. B., McLintock, J., and Saunders, J. R.. 1972. Laboratory studies on the transmission of western equine encephalitis virus by Saskatchewan mosquitoes. I. Culex tarsalis. Can. J. comp. Med. 36: 83–88.Google ScholarPubMed
Hearle, E. 1926. The mosquitoes of the Lower Fraser Valley, British Columbia, and their control. Rep. Natn. Res. Coun., No. 17, 94 pp.Google Scholar
Hearle, E. 1938. Insects and allied parasites injurious to livestock and poultry in Canada. Dom. Can. – Dep. Agric. Fmrs' Bull. 53.Google Scholar
Henderson, B. E. and Coleman, P. H.. 1971. The growing importance of California arboviruses in the etiology of human disease. Prog. med. Virol. 13: 404–461.Google ScholarPubMed
Hind, H. Y. 1859. North-west Territory. Reports of progress on the Assiniboine and Saskatchewan exploring expedition, made under instructions from the Provincial Secretary, Canada. John Lovell, Toronto. 201 pp.Google Scholar
Hocking, B. 1952. Protection from northern biting flies. Mosquito News 12: 91–102.Google Scholar
Hoff, G. L. et al. , 1969. Snowshoe hares and the California encephalitis virus group in Alberta, 1961–1968. Bull. wildl. Dis. Ass. 5: 254–259.Google ScholarPubMed
Hoff, G. L. et al. , 1970 a. Selected microbial agents in snowshoe hares and other vertebrates of Alberta. J. wildl. Dis. 6: 472–478.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hoff, G. L. et al. , 1970 b. Isolation of a Bunyamwera group arbovirus from a naturally infected caribou. J. wildl. Dis. 6: 483–487.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Howitt, B. F. et al. , 1948. Recovery of the virus of eastern equine encephalomyelitis from mosquitoes (Mansonia perturbans) collected in Georgia. Science 110: 141–142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Iversen, J. O., Seawright, G., and Hanson, R. P.. 1971. Serologic survey for arboviruses in Central Alberta. Can. J. publ. Hlth 62: 125–132.Google ScholarPubMed
Iversen, J. et al. , 1969. Isolations of virus of the California encephalitis virus group from boreal Aedes mosquitoes. Am. J. trop. Med. Hyg. 18: 735–742.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Iversen, J. O. et al. , 1973. California encephalitis virus in Saskatchewan: isolations from boreal Aedes mosquitoes. Can. J. publ. Hlth 64: 590–594.Google ScholarPubMed
Jennings, W. L. et al. , 1969. Serologic studies of possible avian or mammalian reservoirs of St. Louis encephalitis virus in Florida. In St. Louis encephalitis in Florida. Monogr. Fla. St. Bd Hlth, No. 12, pp. 118–125.Google Scholar
Kelser, R. A. 1933. Mosquitoes as vectors of the virus of equine encephalomyelitis. J. Am. vet. med. Ass. 82: 767–771.Google Scholar
Kelser, R. A. 1935. Personal communication to Dr. J. S. Simmons, 1935. Am. J. trop. Med. 16: 289–302.Google Scholar
Kelser, R. A. 1937. Transmission of the virus of equine encephalomyelitis by Aedes taeniorhynchus. Science 85: 178.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kettyls, C. D. et al. , 1972. Arbovirus infections in man in British Columbia. Can. med. Ass. J. 106: 1175–1179.Google ScholarPubMed
Kidd, A. 1964. British Columbia. In Unpublished Report, pp. 29–30. Inter-provincial meeting on western equine encephalomyelitis at the University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Sask., May 20, 1964. Division of Health Education, Saskatchewan Department of Public Health, Regina.Google Scholar
Kissling, R. E. 1960. The arthropod-borne viruses of man and other animals. A. Rev. Microbiol. 14: 261–282.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kokernot, R. H. et al. , 1969. Arbovirus studies in the Ohio-Mississippi basin, 1964–1967. IV. Cache Valley virus. Am. J. trop. Med. Hyg. 18: 768–773.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
LeMaitre, M. P. 1972. Premieres observations cliniques d'encephalite equine (type Est) dans la province de Québec. Med. vet. Queb. 2: 33–35.Google Scholar
Madsen, D. E. and Knowlton, G. F.. 1935. Mosquito transmission of equine encephalomyelitis. J. Am. vet. med. Ass. 86: 662–666.Google Scholar
Madsen, D. E., Knowlton, G. F., and Rowe, J. A.. 1936. Further studies on transmission of equine encephalomyelitis by mosquitoes. J. Am. vet. med. Ass. 89: 187–196.Google Scholar
McKiel, J. A., Hall, R. R., and Newhouse, V. F.. 1966. Viruses of the California encephalitis complex in indicator rabbits. Am. J. trop. Med. Hyg. 15: 98–102.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLean, D. M. 1970. California encephalitis virus isolation from British Columbia mosquitoes. Mosquito News 30: 144–145.Google Scholar
McLean, D. M. et al. , 1970. California encephalitis and Powassan virus activity in British Columbia, 1969. Am. J. Epidem. 92: 266–272.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLean, D. M. et al. , 1971. North-south distribution of arbovirus reservoirs in British Columbia, 1970. Can. J. publ. Hlth 62: 120–124.Google ScholarPubMed
McLean, D. M. et al. , 1972. California encephalitis virus isolations from Yukon mosquitoes, 1971. Am. J. Epidem. 95: 347–355.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLean, D. M. et al. , 1973. California encephalitis virus endemicity in the Yukon Territory, 1972. J. Hyg. 71: 391–402.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLintock, J. 1947. Infection cycles in western equine and St. Louis encephalitis. Manitoba med. Rev. 27: 635–637.Google ScholarPubMed
McLintock, J. et al. , 1966. Ecological factors in the 1963 outbreaks of western encephalitis in Saskatchewan. Can. J. publ. Hlth 57: 561–576.Google ScholarPubMed
McLintock, J. et al. , 1970. Known mosquito hosts of western encephalitis virus in Saskatchewan. J. med. Ent. 7: 446–454.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meyer, K. F. 1962. Foreword, pp. iii–v. In Reeves and Hammon, Epidemiology of the arthropod-borne viral encephalitides in Kern County, California 1943–1952. Univ. Calif. Publs in Publ. Hlth, Vol. 4.Google Scholar
Morgante, O. and Shemanchuk, J. A.. 1967. Virus of the California encephalitis complex: isolation from Culiseta inornata. Science 157: 692–693.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Norris, M. 1946. Recovery of a strain of western equine encephalitis virus from Culex restuans (Theo.) (Diptera: Culicidae). Can. J. Res. (E) 24: 63–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Rourke, F. J. 1955. Korean malaria in Canada. Can. J. publ. Hlth 46: 400–406.Google ScholarPubMed
O'Rourke, F. J. 1959. Anopheles and the problem of malaria in Canada. Can. Ent. 91: 346–352.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pucat, A. 1964. Seven new records of mosquitoes in Alberta. Mosquito News 24: 419–421.Google Scholar
Reeves, W. C. and Hammon, W. McD.. 1946. Laboratory transmission of Japanese B encephalitis virus by seven species (three genera) of North American mosquitoes. J. exp. Med. 83: 185–194.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rhodes, A. J. 1961. Virus infections — a world wide challenge in public health. Can. J. publ. Hlth 52: 422–428.Google ScholarPubMed
Sanders, D. P., Rieme, M. E., and McNeill, J. C.. 1968. Salt marsh mosquito control in relation to beef cattle production. A preliminary report. Mosquito News 28: 311–313.Google Scholar
Savage, A. 1942. Note on the prevalence of encephalomyelitis in Manitoba horses prior to 1941. Can. publ. Hlth J. 33: 258.Google Scholar
Schofield, F. W. and Labzoffsky, N.. 1939. Report on cases of suspected encephalomyelitis occurring in the vicinity of St. George. Rep. Ont. Dep. Agric., Ont. vet. Coll. 1938, pp. 25–29.Google Scholar
Shemanchuk, J. A. and Morgante, O.. 1968. Isolation of western encephalitis virus from mosquitoes in Alberta. Can. J. Microbiol. 14: 1–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simmons, J. S., Reynolds, F. H. K., and Cornell, V. H.. 1936. Transmission of virus of equine encephalomyelitis through Aedes albopictus Skuze. Am. J. trop. Med. 16: 289–302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spalatin, J. et al. , 1963. Isolation of western equine encephalitis (WEE) virus from mosquitoes in Saskatchewan, 1962. Can. J. comp. Med. 27: 283–289.Google ScholarPubMed
Spalatin, J. et al. , 1964, Western equine encephalitis in Saskatchewan reptiles and amphibians, 1961–1963. Can. J. comp. Med. 28: 131–142.Google ScholarPubMed
Stone, A., Knight, K. L., and Starcke, H.. 1959. A synoptic catalogue of the mosquitoes of the world. The Thomas Say Foundation Vol. VI. Entomological Society of America, Wash. D.C.358 pp.Google Scholar
Sudia, W. D. et al. , 1971. California group arboviruses; isolations from mosquitoes in North America. Mosquito News 31: 576–600.Google Scholar
Summers-Smith, D. 1963. The house sparrow. Collins, London. 265 pp.Google Scholar
Taylor, R. M. 1967. Catalogue of arthropod-borne viruses of the world. U.S. Dept. Hlth., Education, Welf. Publ. Hlth. Serv., Wash., D.C.898 pp.Google Scholar
Twinn, C. R. 1927. Mosquito control at Ottawa, Ontario. 57th A. Rep. ent. Soc. Ont., pp. 12–17.Google Scholar
Twinn, C. R. 1950. Studies of the biology and control of biting flies in Northern Canada. Arctic 3: 14–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
West, A. S. 1956. The potential of mosquito-borne diseases in Canada. Proc. 43d A. Mtg N.J. Mosq. Exterm. Ass., pp. 124–129.Google Scholar
West, A. S. 1958. Animal viruses in arthropods in Canada — the known and the unknown. Proc. 10th int. Congr. Ent. (1956), Vol. 3, pp. 581–586.Google Scholar
Yuill, T. M. 1964 (unpub.). Viral and parasitic infections of a population of snowshoe hares in Alberta. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. of Wisconsin. 115 pp.Google Scholar
Yuill, T. M. and Hanson, R. P.. 1964. Serologic evidence of California encephalitis virus in snowshoe hares. Zoonoses Res. 3: 153–164.Google ScholarPubMed
Yuill, T. M., Iversen, J. O., and Hanson, R. P.. 1969. Evidence for arbovirus infections in a population of snowshoe hares: a possible mortality factor. Bull. wildl. Dis. Ass. 5: 248–253.Google Scholar