Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-r5fsc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-30T23:19:31.120Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Lyme borreliosis in Canada: biological diversity and diagnostic complexity from an entomological perspective

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 April 2012

Janet L.H. Sperling  and
Felix A.H. Sperling
Janet L.H. Sperling
Affiliation:
Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2E9
Felix A.H. Sperling*
Affiliation:
Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2E9
*
2Corresponding author (e-mail: [email protected]).
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Lyme borreliosis (LB), also known as Lyme disease, is emerging as a serious tickborne illness across Canada. More than three decades of research on LB in North America and Europe have provided a large, complex body of research involving well-documented difficulties at several levels. However, entomologists are well situated to contribute to resolving some of these challenges. The central pathogen in LB, the spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi Johnson et al., includes numerous genospecies and strains that are associated with different disease symptoms and distributions. The primary vectors of LB are ticks of various Ixodes Latreille species (Acari: Ixodida: Ixodidae), but questions linger concerning the status of a number of other arthropods that may be infected with B. burgdorferi but do not transmit it biologically. A variety of vertebrates may serve as reservoirs for LB, but differences in their ability to transmit LB are not well understood at the community level. Persistent cystic forms of and immune system evasion by B. burgdorferi contribute to extraordinary challenges in diagnosing LB. Multiple trade-offs constrain the effectiveness of assays like ELISA, Western blot, polymerase chain reaction, and microscopic visualization of the spirochetes. Consequently, opportunities abound for entomologists to contribute to documenting the diversity of the players and their interactions in this devilishly complex disease.

Résumé

La borréliose de Lyme (LB), connue aussi sous le nom de maladie de Lyme, est en train de devenir une importante maladie transmise par les tiques dans l’ensemble du Canada. Les recherches au cours de plus de trois décennies sur LB en Amérique du Nord et en Europe ont fourni un ensemble considérable et complexe de travaux qui comporte des problèmes bien identifiés à diffe´rents niveaux. Les entomologistes sont, cependant, bien placés pour contribuer à solutionner certains de ces défis. Le pathogène principal de LB, le spirochète Borrelia burgdorferi Johnson et al., englobe plusieurs espèces génétiques et souches qui sont associées à des symptômes et des répartitions différentes de la maladie. Les vecteurs principaux de LB sont des tiques de différentes espèces d’Ixodes Latreille (Acari: Ixodida: Ixodidae), mais il reste des questions concernant le statut de plusieurs autres arthropodes qui peuvent être infectés par B. burgdorferi, mais qui ne le transmettent pas biologiquement. Divers vertébrés peuvent servir de réservoirs pour LB, mais les différences relatives dans leur capacité à transmettre LB ne sont pas bien comprises au niveau de la communauté. Les formes kystiques persistantes et l’évasion du système immunitaire chez B. burgdorferi rendent le diagnostic de LB extraordinairement compliqué. De nombreux compromis limitent l’efficacité de tests biologiques, tels que la méthode ELISA, le buvardage western, l’amplification en chaîne par polymérase et la visualisation des spirochètes au microscope. En conséquence, il existe de multiples occasions our les entomologistes de contribuer à l’étude de la diversité des intervenants et de leurs interactions dans cette maladie diablement complexe.

[Traduit par la Rédaction]

Type
Articles
Information
The Canadian Entomologist , Volume 141 , Issue 6 , December 2009 , pp. 521 - 549
Creative Commons
The online version of this article is published within Open Access environment subject to the conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommerial-ShareAlike licence . The written permission of Cambridge University Press must be obtained for commercial re-use.
Copyright
Copyright © Entomological Society of Canada 2009 The online version of this article is published within Open Access environment subject to the conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommerial-ShareAlike licence <http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/2.5/>. The written permission of Cambridge University Press must be obtained for commercial re-use.

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aguero-Rosenfeld, M.E., Wang, G., Schwartz, I., and Wormser, G.P. 2005. Diagnosis of lyme borreliosis. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 18(3): 484–509. PMID:16020686 doi:10.1128/CMR.18.3.484-509.2005.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alekseev, A.N., Arumova, E.A., and Vasilieva, I.S. 1995. Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in female cement plug of Ixodes persulcatus ticks (Acari, Ixodidae). Experimental and Applied Acarology, 19(9): 519–522. PMID:8575271 doi:10.1007/BF00052920.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Allan, B.F., Keesing, F., and Ostfeld, R. 2003. Effect of forest fragmentation on Lyme disease risk. Conservation Biology, 17(1): 267–272. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.2003.01260.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, J.M., and Valenzuela, J.G. 2007. Spitacular entry: Borrelia gets help from a tick salivary protein to move from the mammalian host to the arthropod vector. Cell Host and Microbe, 2(1): 3–4. PMID:18005711 doi:10.1016/j.chom.2007.06.007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, R.R., and Harrington, L.C. 2009. Tick biology for the home owner [online]. Available from http://www.entomology.cornell.edu/MedEnt/TickBioFS/TickBioFS.html [accessed 31 May 2009].Google Scholar
Arnold, R.R., Russell, J.E., Champion, W.J., Brewer, M., and Gauthier, J.J. 1982. Bactericidal activity of human lactoferrin: differentiation from the stasis of iron deprivation. Infection and Immunity, 35(3): 792–799 PMID: 6802759.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Artsob, H., Garvie, M., Cawthorn, R.J., Horney, B., Maloney, R., Dick, D., and McBurney, S. 1992. Isolation of the Lyme disease spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi, from Ixodes dammini (Acari: Ixodidae) collected on Prince Edward Island, Canada. Journal of Medical Entomology, 29(6): 1063–1066 PMID:1460625.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Artsob, H., Maloney, R., Conboy, G., and Horney, B. 2000. Identification of Ixodes scapularis in Newfoundland, Canada. Canada Communicable Disease Report, 26(16): 133–134.Google ScholarPubMed
Ballantyne, C. 2008. The chronic debate over Lyme disease. Nature Medicine, 14(11): 1135–1139. PMID:18989271 doi:10.1038/nm1108-1135.Google Scholar
Banerjee, S. 1993. Isolation of Borrelia burgdorferi in British Columbia. Canada Diseases Weekly Report No. 19-24. pp. 204–205.Google Scholar
Banerjee, S.N., Banerjee, M., Fernando, K., Dong, M.Y., Smith, J.A., and Cook, D. 1995a. Isolation of Borrelia burgdorferi, the Lyme disease spirochete from rabbit ticks, Haemaphysalis leporispalustris from Alberta. Journal of Spirochetal and Tick-Borne Diseases, 2: 23–24.Google Scholar
Banerjee, S.N., Christensen, C.I., and Scott, J.D. 1995b. Lyme disease in Canada. Canada Communicable Disease Report 21(10). PMID: 7881380.Google Scholar
Bankhead, T., and Chaconas, G. 2007. The role of VlsE antigenic variation in the Lyme disease spirochete: persistence through a mechanism that differs from other pathogens. Molecular Microbiology, 65(6): 1547–1558. PMID:1771 4442 doi:10.1111/j.1365-2958.2007.05895.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barbour, A.G., and Hayes, S.F. 1986. Biology of Borrelia species. Microbiological Reviews, 50(4): 381–400 PMID:3540570.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barbour, A.G., Jasinskas, A., Kayala, M.A., Davies, D.H., Steere, A.C., Baldi, P., and Felgner, P.L. 2008. A genome-wide proteome array reveals a limited set of immunogens in natural infections of humans and white-footed mice with Borrelia burgdorferi. Infection and Immunity, 76(8): 3374–3389. PMID:18474646 doi:10.1128/IAI.00048-08.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barker, I.K., and Lindsay, L.R. 2000. Lyme borreliosis in Ontario: determining the risks. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 162(11): 1573–1574 PMID:10862232.Google ScholarPubMed
Barker, I.K., Surgeoner, G.A., McEwen, S.A., and Artsob, H. 1988. Borrelia burgdorferi, the agent of Lyme disease, in tick vectors and wildlife reservoirs in southern Ontario. Ontario Disease Surveillance Report No. 9. pp. 151–154.Google Scholar
Barker, I.K., Lindsay, L.R., Campbell, G.D., Surgeoner, G.A., and McEwen, S.A. 1993. The groundhog tick Ixodes cookei (Acari: Ixodidae): a poor potential vector of Lyme borreliosis. Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 29: 416–422.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barthold, S. 2000. Lyme borreliosis. In Persistent bacterial infections. Edited by Nataro, J.P., Blaser, M.J., and Cunningham-Rundles, S.. ASM Press, Washington D.C. pp. 281–304.Google Scholar
Bjerkelund, J. 1997. New Brunswick Veterinary Medical Association Newsletter June 1997, Saint John, New Brunswick. pp. 15–16.Google Scholar
Bjerrum, O.J., and Heegaard, N.H.H. 2001. Western blotting. In Encyclopedia of life sciences. John Wiley and Sons, London. pp. 1–6.Google Scholar
Bollegraaf, E. 1988. Lyme disease in Canada. Canada Diseases Weekly Report No. 14-22. pp. 95–97.Google Scholar
Bratton, R.L., Whiteside, J.W., Hovan, M.J., Engle, R.L., and Edwards, F.D. 2008. Diagnosis and treatment of Lyme disease. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 83(5): 566–571. PMID:18452688 doi:10.4065/83.5.566.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Breier, F., Khanakah, G., Stanek, G., Kunz, G., Aberer, E., Schmidt, B., and Tappeiner, G. 2001. Isolation and polymerase chain reaction typing of Borrelia afzelii from a skin lesion in a seronegative patient with generalized ulcerating bullous lichen sclerosus et atrophicus. The British Journal of Dermatology, 144(2): 387–392. PMID:11251580 doi:10.1046/j.1365-2133.2001.04034.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brisson, D., Dykhuizen, D.E., and Ostfeld, R.S. 2008. Conspicuous impacts of inconspicuous hosts on the Lyme disease epidemic. Proceedings of the Royal Society, Biological Sciences, 275: 227–235.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
British Columbia Ministry of Health. 2008. Press release: Lyme disease in B.C., February 29 2008 [online/. Available from http://www.health.gov.bc.ca/cpa/mediasite/pdf/fr_Lyme_disease_Feb29_2008.pdf [accessed 21 February 2009].Google Scholar
Brorson, Ø, Brorson, S.H. 1998. In vitro conversion of Borrelia burgdorferi to cystic forms in spinal fluid, and transformation to mobile spirochetes by incubation in BSK-H medium. Infection, 26(3): 144–150. PMID:9646104 doi:10.1007/BF02771839.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brorson, Ø, Brorson, S.H. 2004. An in vitro study of the susceptibility of mobile and cystic forms of Borrelia burgdorferi to tinidazole. International Microbiology, 7(2): 139–142 PMID:15248163.Google Scholar
Brouqui, P., Bacellar, F., Baranton, G., Birtles, R.J., Bjoësdorff, A., Blanco, J.R., et al. 2004. Guidelines for the diagnosis of tick-borne bacterial diseases in Europe. Clinical Microbiology and Infection, 10(12): 1108–1132. PMID: 15606643 doi:10.1111/j.1469-0691.2004.01019.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bunikis, J., Garpmo, U., Tsao, J., Berglund, J., Fish, D., and Barbour, A.G. 2004. Sequence typing reveals extensive strain diversity of the Lyme borreliosis agents Borrelia burgdorferi in North America and Borrelia afzelii in Europe. Microbiology, 150(6): 1741–1755. PMID:15184561 doi:10.1099/mic.0.26944-0.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burgdorfer, W., Barbour, A.G., Hayes, S.F., Benach, J.L., Grunwaldt, E., and Davis, J.P. 1982. Lyme disease — a tick-borne spirochetosis? Science (Washington D.C.), 216(4552): 1317–1319. PMID:7043737 doi:10.1126/science.7043737.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burgess, E.C., and Patrican, L.A. 1987. Oral infection of Peromyscus maniculatus with Borrelia burgdorferi and subsequent transmission by Ixodes dammini. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 36(2): 402–407 PMID:3826500.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burkot, T.R., Maupin, G.O., Schneider, B.S., Denatale, C., Happ, C.M., Rutherford, J.S., and Zeidner, N.S. 2001. Use of a sentinel host system to study the questing behavior of Ixodes spinipalpis and its role in the transmission of Borrelia bissettii, human granulocytic ehrlichiosis, and Babesia microti. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 65(4): 293–299 PMID:11693872.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cabello, F.C., Godfrey, H.P., and Newman, S.A. 2007. Hidden in plain sight: Borrelia burgdorferi and the extracellular matrix. Trends in Microbiology, 15(8): 350–354. PMID:17600717 doi: 10.1016/j.tim.2007.06.003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cameron, D.J. 2009. Clinical trials validate the severity of persistent Lyme disease symptoms. Medical Hypotheses, 72(2): 153–156. PMID: 19013025 doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2008.09.030.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cameron, D.J., Gaito, A., Harris, N., Bach, G., Bellovin, S., Bock, K., et al. 2004. Evidence-based guidelines for the management of Lyme disease. Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy, 2(1 Suppl): S1–S13. PMID:15581390 doi:10.1586/14789072.2.1.S1.Google ScholarPubMed
Canadian Lyme Disease Foundation. 2009. Ticks of Canada [online]. Available from http://www.canlyme.com/tickscanada.html [accessed 25 March 2009].Google Scholar
Canadian Paediatric Society (CPS). 2009. Lyme disease in Canada: Q and A for paediatricians. Paediatrics and Child Health (Oxford), 14: 103–105.Google Scholar
Canadian Public Health Laboratory Network (CPHLN). 2007. The laboratory diagnosis of Lyme borreliosis: guidelines from the Canadian Public Health Laboratory Network. The Canadian Journal of Infectious Diseases and Medical Microbiology. 18(2): 145–148 PMID:18923770.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Casjens, S., Palmer, N., van Vugt, R., Huang, W.M., Stevenson, B., Rosa, P., et al. 2000. A bacterial genome in flux: the twelve linear and nine circular extrachromosomal DNAs in an infectious isolate of the Lyme disease spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi. Molecular Microbiology, 35(3): 490–516. PMID:10672174 doi:10.1046/j.1365-2958.2000.01698.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 1995. Recommendations for test performance and interpretation. In Proceedings of the Second National Conference on Serologic Diagnosis of Lyme Disease. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 44: 590–591.Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2007. Lyme disease — United States, 2003–2005. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 56(23): 573–576 PMID:17568368.Google Scholar
Chaconas, G. 2005. Hairpin telomeres and genome plasticity in Borrelia: all mixed up in the end. Molecular Microbiology, 58(3): 625–635. PMID: 16238614 doi:10.1111/j.1365-2958.2005.04872.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Charron, D., and Sockett, P. 2005. Signs of change, signs of trouble: finding the evidence in climate change: preparing for the health impacts. Health Policy Research Bulletin, 11: 27–30.Google Scholar
Clark, K., Hendricks, A., and Burge, D. 2005. Molecular identification and analysis of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in lizards in the southeastern United States. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 71(5): 2616–2625. PMID:15870353 doi:10.1128/AEM.71.5.2616-2625.2005.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clover, J.R., and Lane, R.S. 1995. Evidence implicating nymphal Ixodes pacificus (Acari: Ixodidae) in the epidemiology of Lyme disease in California. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 53(3): 237–240 PMID:7573703.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Connecticut General Assembly. 2009. An act concerning the use of long-term antibiotics for the treatment of Lyme disease [online]. Available from http://www.cga.ct.gov/asp/cgabillstatus/cgabillstatus.asp?selBillType=Bill&bill_num=HB-6200 [accessed 30 May 2009].Google Scholar
Costero, A. 1990. Identification of the Lyme disease vector in Canada. Canada Diseases Weekly Report No. 16-30. pp. 142–147.Google Scholar
Craig-Mylius, K.A., Lee, M., Jones, K.L., and Glickstein, L.J. 2009. Arthritogenicity of Borrelia burgdorferi and Borrelia garinii: comparison of infection in mice. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 80(2): 252–258 PMID:19190223.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crippa, M., Rais, O., and Gern, L. 2002. Investigations on the mode and dynamics of transmission and infectivity of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto and Borrelia afzelii in Ixodes ricinus ticks. Vector Borne and Zoonotic Diseases (Larchmont N.Y.), 2(1): 3–9. PMID:12656125 doi:10.1089/153036602760260724.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cutler, S.J., Moss, J., Fukunaga, M., Wright, D.J.M., Fekade, D., and Warrell, D. 1997. Borrelia recurrentis characterization and comparison with relapsing-fever, Lyme-associated, and other Borrelia spp. International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology, 47(4): 958–968 PMID:9336893.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doby, J.M., Anderson, J.F., Couatarmanac'h, A., Magnarelli, L.A., and Martin, A. 1987. Lyme disease in Canada with possible transmission by an insect. Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie, Mikrobiologie und Hygiene Series A, 263: 488–490.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dolan, M.C., Zeidner, N.S., Gabitzsch, E., Dietrich, G., Borchert, J.N., Poché, R.M., and Piesman, J. 2008. A doxycycline hyclate rodent bait formulation for prophylaxis and treatment of tick-transmitted Borrelia burgdorferi. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 78(5): 803–805 PMID:18458316.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Donta, S.T. 2002. Late and chronic Lyme disease. The Medical Clinics of North America, 86(2): 341–349., vii PMID:11982305 doi:10.1016/S0025-7125(03)00090-7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Donta, S.T. 2003. Macrolide therapy of chronic Lyme disease. Medical Science Monitor, 9: 136–142.Google ScholarPubMed
Donta, S.T. 2007. Lyme disease guidelines — it's time to move forward. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 44(8): 1134–1135, author reply 1137–1139. PMID:17366465 doi:10.1086/51297.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
dosSantos, C., and Kain, K. 1998. Concurrent babesiosis and Lyme disease diagnosed in Ontario. Canada Communicable Disease Report No. 24-12. pp. 1–3.Google Scholar
Dressler, F., Whalen, J.A., Reinhardt, B.N., and Steere, A.C. 1993. Western blotting in the serodiagnosis of Lyme disease. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 167(2): 392–400 PMID:8380611.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Durden, L.A., and Keirans, J.E. 1996. Nymphs of the genus Ixodes (Acari Ixodidae) of the United States:taxonomy, identification key, distribution, hosts, and medical/veterinary importance. Entomological Society of America, Lanham, Maryland, pp. 1–95.Google Scholar
Egberts, F., Moller, M., Proksch, E., and Schwarz, T. 2008. Multiple erythema migrans — manifestation of systemic cutaneous borreliosis. Journal of the German Society of Dermatology, 6: 350–353.Google ScholarPubMed
Eisen, L., and Lane, R.S. 2002. Vectors of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato. In Lyme borreliosis: biology, epidemiology and control. Edited by Gray, J., Kahl, O., Lane, R.S., and Stanek, G.. CABI Publishing, New York.Google Scholar
Evans, R., Mavin, S., and Ho-Yen, D.O. 2005. Audit of the laboratory diagnosis of Lyme disease in Scotland. Journal of Medical Microbiology, 54(12): 1139–1141. PMID:16278426 doi:10.1099/jmm.0.46003-0.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Exner, M. 2004. Borrelia spp. In Encyclopedia of medical genomics and proteomics. Volume 1. Part 1. pp. 146–149.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Falco, R.C., and Fish, D. 1991. Horizontal movement of adult Ixodes dammini (Acari: Ixodidae) attracted to CO2-baited traps. Journal of Medical Entomology, 28(5): 726–729 PMID:1941943.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fallon, B.A., Keilp, J.G., Corbera, K.M., Petkova, E., Britton, C.B., Dwyer, E., et al. 2008. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of repeated IV antibiotic therapy for Lyme encephalopathy. Neurology, 70(13): 992–1003. PMID: 17928580 doi:10.1212/01.WNL.0000284604.61160.2d.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Faulde, M.K., and Robbins, R.G. 2008. Tick infestation risk and Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. infection-induced increase in host-finding efficacy of female Ixodes ricinus under natural conditions. Experimental and Applied Acarology, 44: 127–145.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fernando, K., Lee, M.-K., Wong, Q., Burgess, K., Durden, L., and Morshed, M. 2008. First Isolation of Borrelia burgdorferi from Ixodes cookei removed from a dog in Alberta. The Canadian Journal of Infectious Diseases and Medical Microbiology, 19: 130.Google Scholar
Fikrig, E., Barthold, S.W., Marcantonio, N., Deponte, K., Kantor, F.S., and Flavell, R.A. 1992. Roles of OspA, OspB, and flagellin in protective immunity to Lyme borreliosis in laboratory mice. Infection and Immunity, 60(2): 657–661 PMID:1730500.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fingerle, V., Liegl, G., Munderloh, U., and Wilske, B. 1998. Expression of outer surface proteins A and C of Borrelia burgdorferi in Ixodes ricinus ticks removed from humans. Medical Microbiology and Immunology, 187(2): 121–126. PMID:9832327 doi:10.1007/s004300050083.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Forward, K.R. 2005. Lyme Disease: dispelling the myth. The Canadian Journal of Continuing Medical Education, 17: 73–75.Google Scholar
Fritz, C.L. 2009. Emerging tick-borne diseases. The Veterinary Clinics of North America, Small Animal Practice, 39(2): 265–278. PMID: 19185193 doi:10.1016/j.cvsm.2008.10.019.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Furman, D.P., and Loomis, E.C. 1984. the ticks of California. Bulletin of the California Insect Survey, 25.Google Scholar
Gallivan, G.J., Barker, I.K., Artsob, H., Magnarelli, L.A., Robinson, J.T., and Voigt, D.R. 1998. Serologic survey for antibodies to Borrelia burgdorferi in white-tailed deer in Ontario. Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 34(2): 411–414 PMID:9577798.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Galloway, T.D. 2002. Getting to know your ticks. Blue Jay, 60: 107–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gammons, M., and Salam, G. 2002. Tick removal. American Family Physician, 66(4): 643–645 PMID:12201558.Google ScholarPubMed
Gatewood, A.G., Liebman, K.A., Vourc'h, G., Bunikis, J., Hamer, S.A., Cortinas, R., et al. 2009. Climate and tick seasonality are predictors of Borrelia burgdorferi genotype distribution. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 75(8): 2476–2483. PMID:19251900 doi:10.1128/AEM.02633-08.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Giery, S.T., and Ostfeld, R.S. 2007. The role of lizards in the ecology of Lyme disease in two endemic zones of the northeastern United States. The Journal of Parasitology, 93(3): 511–517. PMID:17626342 doi:10.1645/GE-1053R1.1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gilbert, M.A., Morton, E.A., Bundle, S.F., and Samuels, D.S. 2007. Artificial regulation of ospC expression in Borrelia burgdorferi. Molecular Microbiology, 63(4): 1259–1273. PMID: 17257307 doi:10.1111/j.1365-2958.2007.05593.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ginsberg, H.S., Buckley, P.A., Balmforth, M.G., Zhioua, E., Mitra, S., and Buckley, F.G. 2005. Reservoir competence of native North American birds for the Lyme disease spirochete, Borrelia burgdorfieri. Journal of Medical Entomology, 42(3): 445–449. PMID:15962798 doi:10.1603/0022-2585(2005)042[0445:RCONNA]2.0.CO;2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Girschick, H.J., Huppertz, H.I., Rüssmann, H., Krenn, V., and Karch, H. 1996. Intracellular persistence of Borrelia burgdorferi in human synovial cells. Rheumatology International, 16(3): 125–132 PMID:8893378 doi:10.1007/BF01409985.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gray, J.S. 1985. A carbon dioxide trap for prolonged sampling of Ixodes ricinus L. populations. Experimental and Applied Acarology, 1(1): 35–44. PMID:3939717 doi:10.1007/BF01262198.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gray, J.S., Kahl, O., Lane, R.S., and Stanek, G. (Editors). 2002. Lyme borreliosis: biology, epidemiology and control. CABI Publishing, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gregson, J.D. 1956. The Ixodidae of Canada. Publication 930, Canada Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, Ontario.Google Scholar
Halperin, J.J., and Wormser, G.P. 2001. Of fleas and ticks on cats and mice…. Archives of Neurology, 58(9): 1345–1347. PMID:11559304 doi:10.1001/archneur.58.9.1345.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hanincová, K., Ogden, N.H., Diuk-Wasser, M., Pappas, C.J., Iyer, R., Fish, D., Schwartz, I., and Kurtenbach, K. 2008. Fitness variation of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto strains in mice. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 74(1): 153–157. PMID:17981941 doi:10.1128/AEM.01567-07.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hassett, A.L., Radvanski, D.C., Buyske, S., Savage, S.V., Gara, M., Escobar, J.I., and Sigal, L.H. 2008. Role of psychiatric comorbidity in chronic Lyme disease. Arthritis and Rheumatism, 59(12): 1742–1749. PMID:19035409 doi:10.1002/art.24314.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hildenbrand, P., Craven, D.E., Jones, R., and Nemeskal, P. 2009. Lyme neuroborreliosis: manifestations of a rapidly emerging zoonosis. American Journal of Neuroradiology, 30(6): 1079–1087. PMID:19346313 doi:10.3174/ajnr.A1579.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hodzic, E., Feng, S., Holden, K., Freet, K.J., and Barthold, S.W. 2008. Persistence of Borrelia burgdorferi following antibiotic treatment in mice. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 52(5): 1728–1736. PMID:18316520 doi:10.1128/AAC.01050-07.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hojgaard, A., Eisen, R.J., and Piesman, J. 2008. Transmission dynamics of Borrelia burgdorferi s.s. during the key third day of feeding by nymphal Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae). Journal of Medical Entomology, 45(4): 732–736. PMID:18714875 doi:10.1603/0022-2585(2008)45[732:TDOBBS]2.0.CO;2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holl-Wieden, A., Suerbaum, S., and Girschick, H.J. 2007. Seronegative Lyme arthritis. Rheumatology International, 27(11): 1091–1093. doi:10.1007/s00296-007-0333-6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Horobik, V., Keesing, F., and Ostfeld, R.S. 2006. Abundance and Borrelia burgdorferi-infection prevalence of nymphal Ixodes scapularis ticks along forest–field edges. EcoHealth, 3(4): 262–268. doi:10.1007/s10393-006-0065-1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Houhamdi, L., and Raoult, D. 2005. Excretion of living Borrelia recurrentis in feces of infected human body lice. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 191(11): 1898–1906. PMID:15871124 doi:10.1086/429920.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hunfeld, K.P., Ruzic-Sabljic, E., Norris, D.E., Kraiczy, P., and Strle, F. 2005. In vitro susceptibility testing of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato isolates cultured from patients with erythema migrans before and after antimicrobial chemotherapy. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 49(4): 1294–1301. PMID:15793100 doi:10.1128/AAC.49.4.1294-1301.2005.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
IDEXX Laboratories, Inc. 2008. Incidence of heartworm, Ehrlichia canis, Lyme disease, and anplasmosis in dogs across Canada as determined by the IDEXX SNAP® 3Dx® and 4Dx® tests. 2007 national incidence study results. IDEXX Laboratories, Inc., Markham, Ontario. pp. 1–13.Google Scholar
Johnson, R.C., Schmid, G.P., Hyde, F.W., Steigerwalt, A.G., and Brenner, D.J. 1984. Borrelia burgdorferi sp. nov.: etiologic agent of Lyme disease. International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology, 34: 496–497.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Joss, A.W.L., Davidson, M.M., Ho-Yen, D.O., and Ludbrook, A. 2003. Lyme disease — what is the cost for Scotland? Public Health, 117(4): 264–273 PMID:12966749 doi:10.1016/S0033-3506(03)00067-2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jovicić, V.Lj., Grego, E.M., Lako, B.L., Ristović, B.M., Lepsanović, Z.A., and Stajković, N.T. 2003. Improved serodiagnosis of early Lyme borreliosis: immunoblot with local Borrelia afzelii strain. Acta Pathologica, Microbiologica et Immunologica, 111(11): 1053–1059. PMID: 14629271 doi:10.1111/j.1600-0463.2003.apm1111107.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kahl, O., Janetzki-Mittmann, C., Gray, J.S., Jonas, R., Stein, J., and de Boer, R. 1998. Risk of infection with Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato for a host in relation to the duration of nymphal Ixodes ricinus feeding and the method of tick removal. Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie, 287(1–2): 41–52 PMID:9532263.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kahl, O., Gern, L., Eisen, L., and Lane, R.S. 2002. Ecological research on Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato: terminology and some methodological pitfalls. In Lyme borreliosis: biology, epidemiology and control. Edited by Gray, J., Kahl, O., Lane, R.S., and Stanek, G.. CABI Publishing, New York.Google Scholar
Kain, D.E., Sperling, F.A.H., and Lane, R.S. 1997. Population genetic structure of Ixodes pacificus (Acari: Ixodidae) using allozymes. Journal of Medical Entomology, 34(4): 441–450 PMID: 9220679.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kain, D.E., Sperling, F.A.H., Daly, H.V., and Lane, R.S. 1999. Mitochondrial DNA sequence variation in Ixodes pacificus (Acari: Ixodidae). Heredity, 83(4): 378–386. PMID:10583539 doi:10.1038/sj.hdy.6886110.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaiser, R. 2000. False-negative serology in patients with neuroborreliosis and the value of employing of different borrelial strains in serological assays. Journal of Medical Microbiology, 49(10): 911–915 PMID:11023188.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keirans, J.E., and Clifford, C.M. 1978. The genus Ixodes in the United States: a scanning electron microscope study and key to the adults. Journal of Medical Entomology. Supplement 2.Google Scholar
Killilea, M.E., Swei, A., Lane, R.S., Briggs, C.J., and Ostfeld, R.S. 2008. Spatial dynamics of Lyme disease: a review. EcoHealth, 5(2): 167–195. PMID:18787920 doi:10.1007/s10393-008-0171-3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kosik-Bogacka, D.I., Kuźna-Grygiel, W., and Jaborowska, M. 2007. Ticks and mosquitoes as vectors of Borrelia burgdorferi s. l. in the forested areas of Szczecin. Folia Biologica, 55(3-4): 143–146. PMID:18274258 doi:10.3409/173491607781492542.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kudryashev, M., Cyrklaff, M., Baumeister, W., Simon, M.M., Wallich, R., and Frischknecht, F. 2009. Comparative cryo-electron tomography of pathogenic Lyme disease spirochetes. Molecular Microbiology, 71(6): 1415–1434. PMID:19210619 doi:10.1111/j.1365-2958.2009.06613.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kurtenbach, K., Dizij, A., Seitz, H.M., Margos, G., Moter, S.E., Kramer, M.D., et al. 1994. Differential immune responses to Borrelia burgdorferi in European wild rodent species influence spirochete transmission to Ixodes ricinus L. (Acari: Ixodidae). Infection and Immunity, 62(12): 5344–5352 PMID:7960113.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kurtenbach, K., Kampen, H., Dizij, A., Arndt, S., Seitz, H.M., Schaible, U.E., and Simon, M.M. 1995. Infestation of rodents with larval Ixodes ricinus (Acari: Ixodidae) is an important factor in the transmission cycle of Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. in German woodlands. Journal of Medical Entomology, 32(6): 807–817 PMID:8551503.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kurtenbach, K., Sewell, H.-S., Ogden, N.H., Randolph, S.E., and Nuttall, P.A. 1998. Serum complement sensitivity as a key factor in Lyme disease ecology. Infection and Immunity, 66(3): 1248–1251 PMID:9488421.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kurtenbach, K., De Michelis, S., Etti, S., Schäfer, S.M., Sewell, H.-S., Brade, V., and Kraiczy, P. 2002a. Host association of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato — the key role of host complement. Trends in Microbiology, 10(2): 74–79 PMID:11827808 doi:10.1016/S0966-842X(01)02298-3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kurtenbach, K., Schäfer, S.M., Sewell, H.-S., Peacey, M., Hoodless, A., Nuttall, P.A., and Randolph, S.E. 2002b. Differential survival of Lyme borreliosis spirochetes in ticks that feed on birds. Infection and Immunity, 70(10): 5893–5895. PMID:12228325 doi:10.1128/IAI.70.10.5893-5895.2002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kurtenbach, K., Hanincová, K., Tsao, J.I., Margos, G., Fish, D., and Ogden, N.H. 2006. Fundamental processes in the evolutionary ecology of Lyme borreliosis. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 4(9): 660–669. PMID:16894341 doi:10.1038/nrmicro1475.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lane, R.S. 1990. Susceptibility of the western fence lizard (Sceloporus occidentalis) to the Lyme borreliosis spirochete (Borrelia burgdorferi). The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 42(1): 75–82 PMID:2301709.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lane, R.S., and Loye, J.E. 1991. Lyme disease in California: interrelationship of ixodid ticks (Acari), rodents, and Borrelia burgdorferi. Journal of Medical Entomology, 28(5): 719–725 PMID:1941942.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lane, R.S., Steinlein, D.B., and Mun, J. 2004. Human behaviors elevating exposure to Ixodes pacificus (Acari: Ixodidae) nymphs and their associated bacterial zoonotic agents in a hardwood forest. Journal of Medical Entomology, 41(2): 239–248 PMID:15061284.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lawrenz, M.B., Hardham, J.M., Owens, R.T., Nowakowski, J., Steere, A.C., Wormser, G.P., and Norris, S.J. 1999. Human antibody responses to VlsE antigenic variation protein of Borrelia burgdorferi. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 37(12): 3997–4004 PMID:10565921.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lebech, A.M., Hansen, K., Wilske, B., and Theisen, M. 1994. Taxonomic classification of 29 Borrelia burgdorferi strains isolated from patients with Lyme borreliosis: a comparison of five different phenotypic and genotypic typing schemes. Medical Microbiology and Immunology, 183(6): 325–341. PMID:7541107 doi:10.1007/BF00196683.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levine, J.F., Wilson, M.L., and Spielman, A. 1985. Mice as reservoirs of the Lyme disease spirochete. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 34(2): 355–360 PMID:3985277.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liang, F.T., Steere, A.C., Marques, A.R., Johnson, B.J.B., Miller, J.N., and Philipp, M.T. 1999. Sensitive and specific serodiagnosis of Lyme disease by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay with a peptide based on an immunodominant conserved region of Borrelia burgdorferi VlsE. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 37: 3990–3996 PMID:10565920.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liang, F.T., Jacobs, M.B., Bowers, L.C., and Philipp, M.T. 2002. An immune evasion mechanism for spirochetal persistence in Lyme borreliosis. The Journal of Experimental Medicine, 195(4): 415–422. PMID:11854355 doi: 10.1084/jem.20011870.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lindquist, E.E., Wu, K.W., and Redner, J.H. 1999. A new species of the tick genus Ixodes (Acari: Ixodidae) parasitic on mustelids (Mammalia: Carnivora in Canada. The Canadian Entomologist, 131: 151–170.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lindsay, L.R., Barker, I.K., Surgeoner, G.A., McEwen, S.A., Elliott, L.A., and Kolar, J. 1991. Apparent incompetence of Dermacentor variabilis (Acari: Ixodidae) and fleas (Insecta: Siphonaptera) as vectors of Borrelia burgdorferi in an Ixodes dammini endemic area of Ontario, Canada. Journal of Medical Entomology, 28(5): 750–753 PMID:1941949.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lindsay, L.R., Mathison, S.W., Barker, I.K., McEwen, S.A., Gillespie, T.J., and Surgeoner, G.A. 1999a. Microclimate and habitat in relation to Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae) populations on Long Point, Ontario, Canada. Journal of Medical Entomology, 36(3): 255–262 PMID:10337093.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lindsay, L.R., Mathison, S.W., Barker, I.K., McEwen, S.A., and Surgeoner, G.A. 1999b. Abundance of Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae) larvae and nymphs in relation to host density and habitat on Long Point, Ontario. Journal of Medical Entomology, 36(3): 243–254 PMID:10337092.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lindsay, R., Artsob, H., Galloway, T., and Horsman, G. 1999c. Vector of Lyme borreliosis, Ixodes scapularis, identified in Saskatchewan. Canada Communicable Disease Report, 25(9). pp. 81–83 PMID:10079579.Google ScholarPubMed
Livengood, J.A., and Gilmore, R.D. Jr., 2006. Invasion of human neuronal and glial cells by an infectious strain of Borrelia burgdorferi. Microbes and Infection, 8(14–15): 2832–2840. PMID:17045505 doi:10.1016/j.micinf.2006.08.014.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
LoGiudice, K., Ostfeld, R.S., Schmidt, K.A., and Keesing, F. 2003. The ecology of infectious disease: effects of host diversity and community composition on Lyme disease risk. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 100(2): 567–571. PMID:12525705 doi:10.1073/pnas.0233733100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luger, S.W. 1990. Lyme disease transmitted by a biting fly. The New England Journal of Medicine, 322(24): 1752. PMID:2342543.Google ScholarPubMed
Ma, Y., Sturrock, A., and Weis, J.J. 1991. Intracellular localization of Borrelia burgdorferi within human endothelial cells. Infection and Immunity, 59(2): 671–678 PMID:1987083.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mackenzie, S.G. 1990. Lyme disease in Canada. Canada Diseases Weekly Report No. 16-30. pp. 141–142.Google Scholar
Magnarelli, L.A., Anderson, J.F., and Barbour, A.G. 1986. The etiologic agent of Lyme disease in deer flies, horse flies, and mosquitoes. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 154(2): 355–358 PMID:2873190.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Margos, G., Gatewood, A.G., Aanensen, D.M., Hanincová, K., Terekhova, D., Vollmer, S.A., et al. 2008. MLST of housekeeping genes captures geographic population structure and suggests a European origin of Borrelia burgdorferi. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 105(25): 8730–8735. PMID:18574151 doi:10.1073/pnas.0800323105.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Margulis, L., Maniotis, A., MacAllister, J., Scythes, J., Brorson, O., Hall, J., Krumbein, W.E., and Chapman, M.J. 2009. Spirochete round bodies. Syphilis, Lyme disease and AIDS: resurgence of “the great imitator”? Symbiosis, 47: 51–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mather, T.N., Nicholson, M.C., Donnelly, E.F., and Matyas, B.T. 1996. Entomologic index for human risk of Lyme disease. American Journal of Epidemiology, 144(11): 1066–1069 PMID:8942438.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mavin, S., Evans, R., Milner, R.M., Chatterton, J.M.W., and Ho-Yen, D.O. 2009. Local Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto and Borrelia afzelii strains in a single mixed antigen improves western blot sensitivity. Journal of Clinical Pathology, 62(6): 552–554. PMID:19240047 doi:10.1136/jcp.2008.063461.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miklossy, J. 2008. Biology and neuropathology of dementia in syphilis and Lyme disease. In Handbook of clinical neurology; dementias. Volume 89. Edited by Duyckaerts, C. and Litvan, I.. Elsevier, Amsterdam; New York.Google Scholar
Miklossy, J., Khalili, K., Gern, L., Ericson, R.L., Darekar, P., Bolle, L., Hurlimann, J., and Paster, B.J. 2004. Borrelia burgdorferi persists in the brain in chronic Lyme neuroborreliosis and may be associated with Alzheimer disease. Journal of Alzheimer's Disease, 6: 639–649.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miklossy, J., Kis, A., Radenovic, A., Miller, L., Forro, L., Martins, R., et al. 2006. Beta-amyloid deposition and Alzheimer's type changes induced by Borrelia spirochetes. Neurobiology of Aging, 27(2): 228–236. PMID:15894409 doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2005.01.018.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miklossy, J., Kasas, S., Zurn, A.D., McCall, S., Yu, S., and McGeer, P.L. 2008. Persisting atypical and cystic forms of Borrelia burgdorferi and local inflammation in Lyme neuroborreliosis. Journal of Neuroinflammation, 5(1): 40. doi:10.1186/1742-2094-5-40 PMID:18817547.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moriarty, T.J., Norman, M.U., Colarusso, P., Bankhead, T., Kubes, P., Chaconas, G., and Coburn, J. 2008. Real-time high resolution 3D imaging of the Lyme disease spirochete adhering to and escaping from the vasculature of a living host. PLoS Pathogens, 4(6): e1000090. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1000090 PMID:18566656.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moro, M.H., Zegarra-Moro, O.L., Bjornsson, J., Hofmeister, E.K., Bruinsma, E., Germer, J.J., and Persing, D.H. 2002. Increased arthritis severity in mice coinfected with Borrelia burgdorferi and Babesia microti. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 186(3): 428–431. PMID: 12134242 doi:10.1086/341452.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morshed, M.G., Scott, J.D., Fernando, K., Beati, L., Mazerolle, D.F., Geddes, G., and Durden, L.A. 2005. Migratory songbirds disperse ticks across Canada, and first isolation of the Lyme disease spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi, from the avian tick, Ixodes auritulus. The Journal of Parasitology, 91(4): 780–790. PMID:17089744 doi:10.1645/GE-3437.1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morshed, M.G., Scott, J.D., Fernando, K., Geddes, G., McNabb, A., Mak, S., and Durden, L.A. 2006. Distribution and characterization of Borrelia burgdorferi isolates from Ixodes scapularis and presence in mammalian hosts in Ontario, Canada. Journal of Medical Entomology, 43(4): 762–773. PMID:16892637 doi:10.1603/00222585(2006)43[762:DACOBB]2.0.CO;2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murakami, E. 2009. Tick removal: blister and straw and knot methods [online]. Available from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x9dsmFVPDqs [accessed 31 May 2009].Google Scholar
Nardelli, D.T., Callister, S.M., and Schell, R.F. 2008. Lyme arthritis: current concepts and a change in paradigm. Clinical and Vaccine Immunology; CVI, 15(1): 21–34. PMID:18003815 doi:10.1128/CVI.00330-07.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neelakanta, G., Li, X., Pal, U., Liu, X., Beck, D.S., DePonte, K., et al. 2007. Outer surface protein B is critical for Borrelia burgdorferi adherence and survival within Ixodes ticks. PLoS Pathogens, 3(3): e33. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.0030033 PMID:17352535.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nigrovic, L.E., and Thompson, K.M. 2007. The Lyme vaccine: a cautionary tale. Epidemiology and Infection, 135(1): 1–8. PMID:16893489 doi:10.1017/S0950268806007096.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nigrovic, L.E., Thompson, A.D., Fine, A.M., and Kimia, A. 2008. Clinical predictors of Lyme disease among children with a peripheral facial palsy at an emergency department in a Lyme disease-endemic area. Pediatrics, 122(5): e1080–e1085. doi:10.1542/peds.2008-1273 PMID:18931349.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Noda, H., Munderloh, U.G., and Kurtti, T.J. 1997. Endosymbionts of ticks and their relationship to Wolbachia spp. and tick-borne pathogens of humans and animals. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 63(10): 3926–3932 PMID:9327557.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Norris, S.J. 2006. Antigenic variation with a twist — the Borrelia story. Molecular Microbiology, 60(6): 1319–1322 PMID:16796669 doi:10.1111/j.1365-2958.2006.05204.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nuttall, G.H.F., and Warburton, C. 1911. Ixodidae. Section II. The genus Ixodes. In Ticks. A monograph of the Ixodoidea. Part II. Edited by Nuttall, G.H.F., Warburton, C., Cooper, W. F., and Robinson, L.E.. Cambridge University Press, London, United Kingdom. pp. 133–293.Google Scholar
Ogden, N.H., Trudel, L., Artsob, H., Barker, I.K., Beauchamp, G., Charron, D.F., et al. 2006. Ixodes scapularis ticks collected by passive surveillance in Canada: analysis of geographic distribution and infection with Lyme borreliosis agent Borrelia burgdorferi. Journal of Medical Entomology, 43(3): 600–609. PMID:16739422 doi:10.1603/0022-2585(2006)43[600:ISTCBP]2.0.CO;2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ogden, N.H., Artsob, H., Lindsay, L.R., and Sockett, P.N. 2008 a. Lyme disease: a zoonotic disease of increasing importance to Canadians. Canadian Family Physician, 54(10): 1381–1384 PMID:18854461.Google ScholarPubMed
Ogden, N.H., Bigras-Poulin, M., Hanincová, K., Maarouf, A., O'Callaghan, C.J., and Kurtenbach, K. 2008 b. Projected effects of climate change on tick phenology and fitness of pathogens transmitted by the North American tick Ixodes scapularis. Journal of Theoretical Bioogy, 254(3): 621–632. PMID:18634803 doi:10.1016/j.jtbi.2008.06.020.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ogden, N.H., Lindsay, L.R., Hanincová, K., Barker, I.K., Bigras-Poulin, M., Charron, D.F., et al. 2008 c. Role of migratory birds in introduction and range expansion of Ixodes scapularis ticks and of Borrelia burgdorferi and Anaplasma phagocytophilum in Canada. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 74(6): 1780–1790. PMID:18245258 doi:10.1128/AEM.01982-07.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ogden, N.H., Lindsay, L.R., Morshed, M., Sockett, P.N., and Artsob, H. 2008 d. The rising challenge of Lyme borreliosis in Canada. Canada Communicable Disease Report, 34(1): 1–19. PMID:18290267–19.Google ScholarPubMed
Oksi, J., Marjamäki, M., Nikoskelainen, J., and Viljanen, M.K. 1999. Borrelia burgdorferi detected by culture and PCR in clinical relapse of disseminated Lyme borreliosis. Annals of Medicine, 31(3): 225–232. PMID:10442678 doi:10.3109/07853899909115982.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oliver, J.H. Jr., 1989. Biology and systematics of ticks (Acari: Ixodida). Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 20(1): 397–430. doi:10.1146/annurev.es.20.110189.002145.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ouyang, Z., He, M., Oman, T., Yang, X.F., and Norgard, M.V. 2009. A manganese transporter, BB0219 (BmtA), is required for virulence by the Lyme disease spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106(9): 3449–3454. doi:10.1073/pnas.0812999106 PMID:19218460.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Owen, D.C. 2006. Is Lyme disease always poly microbial? — The jigsaw hypothesis. Medical Hypotheses, 67(4): 860–864 PMID:16814477 doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2006.03.046.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pachner, A.R., Basta, J., Delaney, E., and Hulinska, D. 1995. Localization of Borrelia burgdorferi in murine Lyme borreliosis by electron microscopy. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 52(2): 128–133 PMID:7872439.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pachner, A.R., Dail, D., Li, L., Gurey, L., Feng, S., Hodzic, E., and Barthold, S. 2002. Humoral immune response associated with Lyme borreliosis in nonhuman primates: analysis by immunoblotting and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay with sonicates or recombinant proteins. Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology, 9(6): 1348–1355 PMID:12414773.Google ScholarPubMed
Pal, U., Wang, P., Bao, F., Yang, X., Samanta, S., Schoen, R., et al. 2008. Borrelia burgdorferi basic membrane proteins A and B participate in the genesis of Lyme arthritis. The Journal of Experimental Medicine, 205(1): 133–141. PMID:18166585 doi:10.1084/jem.20070962.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pfister, H.W., Einhäupl, K., Preac-Mursic, V., Wilske, B., and Schierz, G. 1984. The spirochetal etiology of lymphocytic meningoradiculitis of Bannwarth (Bannwarth's syndrome). Journal of Neurology, 231(3): 141–144 PMID:6481420 doi:10.1007/BF00313682.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Piacentino, J.D., and Schwartz, B.S. 2002. Occupational risk of Lyme disease: an epidemiological review. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 59(2): 75–84. PMID:11850549 doi:10.1136/oem.59.2.75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Posey, J.E., and Gherardini, F.C. 2000. Lack of a role for iron in the Lyme disease pathogen. Science (Washington D.C.), 288(5471): 1651–1653. PMID:10834845 doi:10.1126/science.288.5471.1651.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Postic, D., Garnier, M., and Baranton, G. 2007. Multilocus sequence analysis of atypical Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato isolates — description of Borrelia californiensis sp. nov., and genomospecies 1 and 2. International Journal of Medical Microbiology, 297(4): 263–271 PMID:17374507 doi:10.1016/j.ijmm.2007.01.006.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Qiu, W.G., Bruno, J.F., McCaig, W.D., Xu, Y., Livey, I., Schriefer, M.E., and Luft, B.J. 2008. Wide distribution of a high-virulence Borrelia burgdorferi clone in Europe and North America. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 14(7): 1097–1104. PMID:18598631 doi:10.3201/eid1407.070880.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramamoorthi, N., Narasimhan, S., Pal, U., Bao, F., Yang, X.F., Fish, D., et al. 2005. The Lyme disease agent exploits a tick protein to infect the mammalian host. Nature (London), 436(7050): 573–577. PMID:16049492 doi:10.1038/nature03812.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rawling, R.A., Strouse, K., and Granato, P.A. 2009. Borrelia burgdorferi and Babesia microti coinfection in a 79-year-old camper. Clinical Microbiology Newsletter, 31(5): 37–39. doi:10.1016/j.clinmicnews.2009.02.002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ribeiro, J.M.C., and Francischetti, I.M.B. 2003. Role of arthropod saliva in blood feeding: sialome and post-sialome perspectives. Annual Review of Entomology, 48(1): 73–88. PMID:12194906 doi:10.1146/annurev.ento.48.060402.102812.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robertson, J., Guy, E., Andrews, N., Wilske, B., Anda, P., Granström, M., et al. 2000. A European multicenter study of immunoblotting in serodiagnosis of Lyme borreliosis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 38(6): 2097–2102 PMID: 10834959.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosa, P.A., Tilly, K., and Stewart, P.E. 2005. The burgeoning molecular genetics of the Lyme disease spirochaete. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 3(2): 129–143. PMID:15685224 doi:10.1038/nrmicro1086.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosé, C.D., Fawcett, P.T., and Gibney, K.M. 2001. Arthritis following recombinant outer surface protein A vaccination for Lyme disease. The Journal of Rheumatology, 28(11): 2555–2557 PMID:11708435.Google ScholarPubMed
Rudenko, N., Golovchenko, M., Grubhoffer, L., and Oliver, J.H. Jr., 2009. Borrelia carolinensis sp. nov., a new (14th) member of the Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato complex from the southeastern region of the United States. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 47(1): 134–141. PMID:19020062 doi:10.1128/JCM.01183-08.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rupprecht, T.A., Koedel, U., Fingerle, V., and Pfister, H.-W. 2008. The pathogenesis of Lyme neuroborreliosis: from infection to inflammation. Molecular Medicine (Cambridge, Mass.), 14(3–4): 205–212 PMID:18097481.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saah, A.J., and Hoover, D.R. 1997. “Sensitivity” and “specificity” reconsidered: the meaning of these terms in analytical and diagnostic settings. Annals of Internal Medicine, 126(1): 91–94 PMID:8992938.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salkeld, D.J., Leonhard, S., Girard, Y.A., Hahn, N., Mun, J., Padgett, K.A., and Lane, R.S. 2008. Identifying the reservoir hosts of the Lyme disease spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi in California: the role of the western gray squirrel (Sciurus griseus). The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 79(4): 535–540 PMID:18840740.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schneider, B.S., Schriefer, M.E., Dietrich, G., Dolan, M.C., Morshed, M.G., and Zeidner, N.S. 2008. Borrelia bissettii isolates induce pathology in a murine model of disease. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases (Larchmont, N.Y.), 8(5): 623–633. PMID:18454594 doi:10.1089/vbz.2007.0251.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schroeder, H., Skelly, P.J., Zipfel, P.F., Losson, B., and Vanderplasschen, A. 2009. Subversion of complement by hematophagous parasites. Developmental and Comparative Immunology, 33(1): 5–13. PMID:18762211 doi:10.1016/j.dci.2008.07.010.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schuijt, T.J., Hovius, J.W.R., van Burgel, N.D., Ramamoorthi, N., Fikrig, E., and van Dam, A.P. 2008. The tick salivary protein Salp15 inhibits the killing of serum-sensitive Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato isolates. Infection and Immunity, 76(7): 2888–2894. PMID:18426890 doi:10.1128/IAI.00232-08.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schwan, T.G., Piesman, J., Golde, W.T., Dolan, M.C., and Rosa, P.A. 1995. Induction of an outer surface protein on Borrelia burgdorferi during tick feeding. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 92(7): 2909–2913. PMID:7708747 doi:10.1073/pnas.92.7.2909.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schwan, T.G., Raffel, S.J., Schrumpf, M.E., and Porcella, S.F. 2007. Diversity and distribution of Borrelia hermsii. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 13(3): 436–442 PMID:17552097.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scoles, G.A., Broce, A.B., Lysyk, T.J., and Palmer, G.H. 2005. Relative efficiency of biological transmission of Anaplasma marginale (Rickettsiales: Anaplasmataceae) by Dermacentor andersoni (Acari: Ixodidae) compared with mechanical transmission by Stomoxys calcitrans (Diptera: Muscidae). Journal of Medical Entomology, 42(4): 668–675. PMID:16119558 doi:10.1603/0022-2585(2005)042[0668:REOBTO]2.0.CO;2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scott, J.D., Fernando, K., Banerjee, S.N., Durden, L.A., Byrne, S.K., Banerjee, M., Mann, R.B., and Morshed, M.G. 2001. Birds disperse ixodid (Acari: Ixodidae) and Borrelia burgdorferi-infected ticks in Canada. Journal of Medical Entomology, 38(4): 493–500 PMID: 11476328.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scott, J.D., Lee, M.-K., Fernando, K., Jorgensen, D.R., Durden, L.A., and Morshed, M.G. 2008. Rapid introduction of Lyme disease spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto, in Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae) established at Turkey Point Provincial Park, Ontario, Canada. Journal of Vector Ecology, 33(1): 64–69. PMID:18697308 doi:10.3376/1081-1710(2008)33[64:RIOLDS]2.0.CO;2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shariat, B.M., Freimund, J.A., Wright, S.M., Murphree, C.S., and Thomas, J.T. 2007. Borrelia infection rates in winter ticks (Dermacentor albipictus) removed from white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in Cheatham County, Tennessee. Journal of the Tennessee Academy of Science, 82: 57–61.Google Scholar
Shi, Y., Xu, Q., McShan, K., and Liang, F.T. 2008. Both decorin-binding proteins A and B are critical for the overall virulence of Borrelia burgdorferi. Infection and Immunity, 76(3): 1239–1246. PMID:18195034 doi:10.1128/IAI.00897-07.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sigal, L.H., and Hassett, A.L. 2002. Contributions of societal and geographical environments to “chronic Lyme disease”: the psychopathogenesis and aporology of a new “medically unexplained symptoms” syndrome. Environmental Health Perspectives, 110(Supplement 4): 607–611 PMID:12194894.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Singh, S.K., and Girschick, H.J. 2004. Lyme borreliosis: from infection to autoimmunity. Clinical Microbiology and Infection, 10(7): 598–614. PMID:15214872 doi:10.1111/j.1469-0691.2004.00895.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skogman, B.H., Croner, S., Nordwall, M., Eknefelt, M., Ernerudh, J., and Forsberg, P. 2008. Lyme neuroborreliosis in children: a prospective study of clinical features, prognosis, and outcome. The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 27(12): 1089–1094. PMID:19008771 doi:10.1097/INF.0b013e31817fd423.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Slowik, T.J., and Lane, R.S. 2009. Feeding preferences of the immature stages of three western North American ixodid ticks (Acari) for avian, reptilian, or rodent hosts. Journal of Medical Entomology, 46(1): 115–122. PMID:19198525 doi:10.1603/033.046.0115.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, R.P. Jr., Muzaffar, S.B., Lavers, J., Lacombe, E.H., Cahill, B.K., Lubelczyk, C.B., et al. 2006. Borrelia garinii in seabird ticks (Ixodes uriae), Atlantic coast, North America. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(12): 1909–1912 PMID:17326943.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sperling, F.A.H., and Roe, A.M. 2009. Molecular dimensions of insect taxonomy. In Insect biodiversity: science and society. Edited by Foottit, R.G. and Adler, P.H.. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, United Kingdom.Google Scholar
Steere, A.C. 1989. Lyme disease. The New England Journal of Medicine, 321(9): 586–596 PMID:2668764.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steere, A.C., McHugh, G., Damle, N., and Sikand, V.K. 2008. Prospective study of serologic tests for Lyme disease. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 47(2): 188–195. PMID:18532885 doi:10.1086/589242.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stevenson, B., von Lackum, K., Riley, S.P., Cooley, A.E., Woodman, M.E., and Bykowski, T. 2006. Evolving models of Lyme disease spirochete gene regulation. Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift, 118(21–22): 643–652. PMID:17160602 doi:10.1007/s00508-006-0690-2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Straubinger, R.K. 2000. Lyme borreliosis in dogs. In Recent advances in canine infectious diseases. Edited by Carmichael, L.E.. International Veterinary Information Service, Ithaca, New York.Google Scholar
Stricker, R.B., and Johnson, L. 2008. Serologic tests for Lyme disease: more smoke and mirrors. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 47(8): 1111–1112, author's reply 1112–1113. PMID:18800935doi:10.1086/592121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stromdahl, E.Y., Williamson, P.C., Kollars, T.M., JrEvans, S.R., Barry, R.K., Vince, M.A., and Dobbs, N.A. 2003. Evidence of Borrelia lonestari DNA in Amblyomma americanum (Acari: Ixodidae) removed from humans. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 41(12): 5557–5562. PMID:14662940 doi:10.1128/JCM.41.12.5557-5562.2003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suffridge, P.J., Smoller, B.R., and Carrington, P.R. 1999. Spiders and Borrelia burgdorferi: no evidence of reservoir occurrence in central Arkansas. International Journal of Dermatology, 38(4): 296–297. PMID:10321947 doi:10.1046/j.1365-4362.1999.00602.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Summers, B.A., Straubinger, A.F., Jacobson, R.H., Chang, Y.F., Appel, M.J., and Straubinger, R.K. 2005. Histopathological studies of experimental Lyme disease in the dog. Journal of Comparative Pathology, 133(1): 1–13. PMID:15904927 doi:10.1016/j.jcpa.2004.11.006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Terekhova, D., Iyer, R., Wormser, G.P., and Schwartz, I. 2006. Comparative genome hybridization reveals substantial variation among clinical isolates of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto with different pathogenic properties. Journal of Bacteriology, 188(17): 6124–6134. PMID:16923879 doi:10.1128/JB.00459-06.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thomas, D.D., Cadavid, D., and Barbour, A.G. 1994. Differential association of Borrelia species with cultured neural cells. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 169(2): 445–448 PMID:8106781.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tibbles, C.D., and Edlow, J.A. 2007. Does this patient have erythema migrans? Journal of the American Medical Association, 297(23): 2617–2627. doi:10.1001/jama.297.23.2617.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tilly, K., Bestor, A., Jewett, M.W., and Rosa, P. 2007. Rapid clearance of Lyme disease spirochetes lacking OspC from skin. Infection and Immunity, 75(3): 1517–1519. PMID:17158906 doi:10.1128/IAI.01725-06.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tilly, K., Rosa, P.A., and Stewart, P.E. 2008. Biology of infection with Borrelia burgdorferi. Infectious Disease Clinics of North America, 22(2): 217–234., v PMID:18452798 doi:10.1016/j.idc.2007.12.013.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tourand, Y., Deneke, J., Moriarty, T.J., and Chaconas, G. 2009. Characterization and in vitro reaction properties of 19 unique hairpin telomeres from the linear plasmids of the Lyme disease spirochete. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 284(11): 7264–7272. PMID:19122193 doi:10.1074/jbc.M808918200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ullmann, A.J., Lane, R.S., Kurtenbach, K., Miller, M., Schriefer, M.E., Zeldner, N., and Piesman, J. 2003. Bacteriolytic activity of selected vertebrate sera for Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto and Borrelia bissettii. Journal of Parasitology, 89(6): 1256–1257. PMID:14740924 doi:10.1645/Ge-3081RN.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vanousová, D., and Hercogová, J. 2008. Lyme borreliosis treatment. Dermatologic Therapy, 21(2): 101–109. PMID:18394084 doi:10.1111/j.1529-8019.2008.00177.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Overbeek, L., Gassner, F., van der Plas, C.L., Kastelein, P., Nunes-da Rocha, U., and Takken, W. 2008. Diversity of Ixodes ricinus tick-associated bacterial communities from different forests. FEMS Microbiology Ecology, 66(1): 72–84. PMID:18355299 doi:10.1111/j.1574-6941.2008.00468.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vázquez, M., Muehlenbein, C., Cartter, M., Hayes, E.B., Ertel, S., and Shapiro, E.D. 2008. Effectiveness of personal protective measures to prevent Lyme disease. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 14(2): 210–216. PMID:18258112 doi:10.3201/eid1402.070725.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Welsh, J., Pretzman, C., Postic, D., Saint Girons, I., Baranton, G., and McClelland, M. 1992. Genomic fingerprinting by arbitrarily primed polymerase chain reaction resolves Borrelia burgdorferi into three distinct phyletic groups. International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology, 42(3): 370–377 PMID:1503971.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wesson, D.M., McLain, D.K., Oliver, J.H., Piesman, J., and Collins, F.H. 1993. Investigation of the validity of species status of Ixodes dammini (Acari: Ixodidae) using rDNA. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 90(21): 10221–10225. PMID:8234280 doi:10.1073/pnas.90.21.10221.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whitney, H. 2005. Lyme Disease in Newfoundland. Animal Health Fact Sheet AP053, Newfoundland and Labrador Department of Agriculture, St. John's, Newfoundland.Google Scholar
Wilske, B., Fingerle, V., and Schulte-Spechtel, U. 2007. Microbiological and serological diagnosis of Lyme borreliosis. FEMS Immunology and Medical Microbiology, 49(1): 13–21. PMID:17266710 doi:10.1111/j.1574-695X.2006.00139.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilson, J.M. 2007. Concerns regarding the Infectious Diseases Society of America Lyme disease clinical practice guidelines. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 44(8): 1135–1137., author's reply 1137–1139. PMID:17366466 doi:10.1086/513030.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wormser, G.P., Dattwyler, R.J., Shapiro, E.D., Halperin, J.J., Steere, A.C., Klempner, M.S., et al. 2006. The clinical assessment, treatment, and prevention of Lyme disease, human granulocytic anaplasmosis, and babesiosis: clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clinical Infectious Disease. Clinical Infactious Disease, 45: 1089–1134.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wormser, G.P., Dattwyler, R.J., Shapiro, E.D., Halperin, J.J., Steere, A.C., Klempner, M.S. et al. 2007. Erratum: The clinical assessment, treatment, and prevention of Lyme disease, human granulocytic anaplasmosis, and babesiosis: clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clinical Infactious Disease, 45: 941.Google Scholar
Wormser, G.P., Liveris, D., Hanincová, K., Brisson, D., Ludin, S., Stracuzzi, V.J., et al. 2008. Effect of Borrelia burgdorferi genotype on the sensitivity of C6 and 2-tier testing in North American patients with culture-confirmed Lyme disease. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 47(7): 910–914. PMID:18724824 doi:10.1086/591529.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Xu, Q., McShan, K., and Liang, F.T. 2008a. Modification of Borrelia burgdorferi to overproduce OspA or VlsE alters its infectious behaviour. Microbiology, 154(Pt 11): 3420–3429. PMID:18957595 doi:10.1099/mic.0.2008/019737-0.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Xu, Y., Bruno, J.F., and Luft, B.J. 2008b. Profiling the humoral immune response to Borrelia burgdorferi infection with protein microarrays. Microbial Pathogenesis, 45(5–6): 403–407. PMID:18976702 doi:10.1016/j.micpath.2008.09.006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yang, X., Coleman, A.S., Anguita, J., Pal, U., and Coburn, J. 2009. A chromosomally encoded virulence factor protects the Lyme disease pathogen against host-adaptive immunity. PLoS Pathogens, 5(3): e1000326. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1000326 PMID:19266024.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yrjänäinen, H., Hytönen, J., Song, X.Y., Oksi, J., Hartiala, K., and Viljanen, M.-K. 2007. Antitumor necrosis factor-alpha treatment activates Borrelia burgdorferi spirochetes 4 weeks after ceftriaxone treatment in C3H/He mice. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 195(10): 1489–1496. PMID:17436229 doi:10.1086/513873.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Žákovská, A., Nejedla, P., Holíková, A., and Dendis, . 2002. Positive findings of Borrelia burgdorferi in Culex (Culex) pipiens pipiens larvae in the surrounding of Brno city determined by the PCR method. Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine, 9(2): 257–259 PMID:12498597.Google ScholarPubMed
Žakovska, A., Janouškovcová, E., Pejchalová, K., Halouzka, J., and Dendis, M. 2008. Identification and characterization of 31 isolates of Borrelia burgdorferi (Spirochaetales, Spirochaetaceae) obtained from various hosts and vectors using PCR-RFLP and SDS-PAGE analysis. Acta Parasitologica, 53(2): 186–192. doi:10.2478/s11686-008-0028-5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zaretsky, L. 2006. Lyme disease in Canada. Canadian Pharmacists Journal, 139(4): 29–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhong, J., Jasinskas, A., Barbour, A.G., and Romesberg, F. 2007. Antibiotic treatment of the tick vector Amblyomma americanum reduced reproductive fitness. PLoSONE, 2(5): e405. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000405 PMID:17476327.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed