Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-q99xh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-22T23:38:34.907Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Moral Enhancement Requires Multiple Virtues

Toward a Posthuman Model of Character Development

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 December 2014

JAMES J. HUGHES
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract:

Some of the debates around the concept of moral enhancement have focused on whether the improvement of a single trait, such as empathy or intelligence, would be a good in general, or in all circumstances. All virtue theories, however, both secular and religious, have articulated multiple virtues that temper and inform one another in the development of a mature moral character. The project of moral enhancement requires a reengagement with virtue ethics and contemporary moral psychology to develop an empirically grounded model of the virtues and a fuller model of character development. Each of these virtues may be manipulable with electronic, psychopharmaceutical, and genetic interventions. A set of interdependent virtues is proposed, along with some of the research pointing to ways such virtues could be enhanced.

Keywords

moral enhancementcharactervirtue
Type
Special Section: How Moral Is (Moral) Enhancement?
Information
Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics , Volume 24 , Issue 1 , January 2015 , pp. 86 - 95
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2014 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Notes

1. Persson, I, Savulescu, J. Moral transhumanism. The Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 2010;35(6):656–69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

2. Persson, I, Savulescu, J. The perils of cognitive enhancement and the urgent imperative to enhance the moral character of humanity. Journal of Applied Philosophy 2008;25(3):162–77.Google Scholar

3. Harris, J. “Ethics is for bad guys!” Putting the “moral” into moral enhancement. Bioethics 2013;27(3):169–73.Google Scholar

4. Harris, J. Moral enhancement and freedom. Bioethics 2011;25(2):102–11.Google Scholar

5. Jotterand, F. “Virtue engineering” and moral agency: Will post-humans still need the virtues? AJOB Neuroscience 2011;2(4):3–9.Google Scholar

6. Grant, AM, Schwartz, B. Too much of a good thing: The challenge and opportunity of the inverted U. Perspectives on Psychological Science 2011;6(1):61–76.Google Scholar

7. See note 5, Jotterand 2011.

8. Fröding, BEE. Cognitive enhancement, virtue ethics and the good life. Neuroethics 2011;4(3):223–34.Google Scholar

9. Shook, J. Neuroethics and the possible types of moral enhancement. AJOB Neuroscience 2012;3(4):3–14.Google Scholar

10. Casebear, W. Moral cognition and its neural constituents. Perspectives Nature Neuroscience 2003;4:841–6.Google Scholar

11. Peterson, CP, Seligman, M. Character Strengths and Virtues: A Handbook and Classification. Washington, DC: APA Press; 2004.Google Scholar

12. McGrath, R. Scale- and item-level factor analyses of the VIA inventory of strengths. Assessment 2012 Feb;21(1):4–14.Google Scholar

13. Shryack, J, Steger, MF, Krueger, RF, Kallie, CS. The structure of virtue: An empirical investigation of the dimensionality of the virtues in action inventory of strengths. Personality and Individual Differences 2010;48:714–19.Google Scholar

14. Digman, JM. Personality structure: Emergence of the five-factor model. Annual Review of Psychology 1990;41:417–40.Google Scholar

15. Ozer, DJ, Benet-Martinez, V. Personality and the prediction of consequential outcomes. Annual Review of Psychology 2006;57:401–21.Google Scholar

16. Luo, X, Kranzler, HR, Zuo, L, Zhang, H, Wang, S, Gelernter, J. CHRM2 variation predisposes to personality traits of agreeableness and conscientiousness. Human Molecular Genetics 2007;16(13):1557–68.Google Scholar

17. Macdonald, C, Bore, M, Munro, D. Values in action scale and the big 5: An empirical indication of structure. Journal of Research in Personality 2008;42(4):787–99.Google Scholar

18. Bartels, M, van Weegen, F, van Beijsterveldt, CM, Carlier, M, Polderman, TJC, Hoekstra, RA, Boomsma, DI. The five factor model of personality and intelligence: A twin study on the relationship between the two constructs. Personality and Individual Differences 2012;53(4):368–73.Google Scholar

19. Blasi, G, Lo Bianco, L, Taurisano, P, Gelao, B, Romano, R, Fazio, L, et al. Functional variation of the dopamine D2 receptor gene is associated with emotional control as well as brain activity and connectivity during emotion processing in humans. Journal of Neuroscience 2008;29(47):14812–19.Google Scholar

20. See note 15, Ozer, Benet-Martinez 2006.

21. Faraone, SV, Mick, E. Molecular genetics of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatric Genetics 2010;33(1):159–80.Google Scholar

22. Baumeister, RF, Vohs, KD, Tice, DM. The strength model of self-control. Current Directions in Psychological Science 2007;16(6):351–5.Google Scholar

23. Sandberg, A. Cognition enhancement: Upgrading the brain. In Savulescu, J, Kahane, G, ter Meulen, R, eds. Enhancing Human Capacities. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell; 2011.Google Scholar

24. Killgore, WD, Kahn-Greene, ET, Grugle, NL, Killgore, DB, Balkin, TJ. Sustaining executive functions during sleep deprivation: A comparison of caffeine, dextroamphetamine, and modafinil. Sleep 2009 Feb;32(2):205–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

25. Sofuoglua, M, DeVito, EE, Waters, AJ, Carroll, KM. Cognitive enhancement as a treatment for drug addictions. Neuropharmacology 2013;64:452–63.Google Scholar

26. Savulescu, J, Sandberg, A. Neuroenhancement of love and marriage: The chemicals between us. Neuroethics 2008;1:31–44.Google Scholar

27. See note 6, Grant, Schwartz 2011.

28. Boyce, CJ, Wood, A, Brown, GDA. The dark side of conscientiousness: Conscientious people experience greater drops in life satisfaction following unemployment. Journal of Research in Personality 2010;44:535–9.Google Scholar

29. Del Barrio, V, Aluja, A, Garcia, LF. Relationship between empathy and the big five personality traits in a sample of Spanish adolescents. Social Behavior and Personality 2004;32(7):677–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

30. Carlo, G, Okun, MA, Knight, GP, de Guzman, MRT. The interplay of traits and motives on volunteering: Agreeableness, extraversion, and prosocial value motivation. Personality and Individual Differences 2005;38:1293–305.Google Scholar

31. Rodrigues, SM, Saslow, LR, Garcia, N, John, OP, Keltner, D. Oxytocin receptor genetic variation relates to empathy and stress reactivity in humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2010;107(31):13936–41.Google Scholar

32. Domes, G, Heinrichs, M, Michel, A, Berger, C, Herpertz, SC. Oxytocin improves “mind-reading” in humans. Biological Psychiatry 2007;61:731–3.Google Scholar

33. Guastellaemail, AJ, Einfeld, SL, Gray, KM, Rinehart, NJ, Tonge, BJ, Lambert, TJ, et al. Intranasal oxytocin improves emotion recognition for youth with autism spectrum disorders. Biological Psychiatry 2010;67(1):692–4.Google Scholar

34. Kosfeld, M, Heinrichs, M, Zak, PJ, Fischbacher, U, Fehr, E. Oxytocin increases trust in humans. Nature 2005 June 2;435:673–6.Google Scholar

35. Zak, PJ, Stanton, AA, Ahmadi, S. Oxytocin increases generosity in humans. PLoS One 2007;2(11):e1128.Google Scholar

36. Thompson, MR, Callaghan, PD, Hunt, GE, Cornish, JL, McGregor, IS. A role for oxytocin and 5-HT(1A) receptors in the prosocial effects of 3,4 methylenedioxymethamphetamine. Neuroscience 2007;146(2):509–14.Google Scholar

37. Crockett, MJ, Clark, L, Tabibnia, G, Lieberman, MD, Robbins, TW. Serotonin modulates behavioral reactions to unfairness. Science 2008;320(5884):1739.Google Scholar

38. Tabibnia, G, Lieberman, MD. Fairness and cooperation are rewarding evidence from social cognitive neuroscience. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 2007;1118:90–101.Google Scholar

39. Windsor, TD, Anstey, KJ, Rodgers, B. Volunteering and psychological well-being among young-old adults: How much is too much? The Gerontologist 2008;48:59–70.Google Scholar

40. De Dreu, CKW, Greer, LL, Van Kleef, GA, Shalvi, S, Handgraaf, MJJ. Oxytocin promotes human ethnocentrism. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2011;108(4):1262–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

41. Marsh, AA, Crowe, SL, Yu, HH, Gorodetsky, EK, Goldman, D, Blair, RJR. Serotonin transporter genotype (5-HTTLPR) predicts utilitarian moral judgments. PLoS ONE 2011;6(10):1–5.Google Scholar

42. Crockett, MJ, Clark, L, Hauser, MD, Robbins, TW. Serotonin selectively influences moral judgment and behavior through effects on harm aversion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2010;107(40):17433–8.Google Scholar

43. Shook, J. Neuroethics and the possible types of moral enhancement. AJOB Neuroscience 2012;3(4):3–14.Google Scholar

44. Haworth, CMA, Wright, MJ, Martin, NW, Martin, NG, Boomsma, DI, Bartels, M, et al. A twin study of the genetics of high cognitive ability selected from 11,000 twin pairs in six studies from four countries. Behavior Genetics 2009;39:359–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

45. Jang, KL, Livesly, WJ, Vemon, PA. Heritability of the big five personality dimensions and their facets: A twin study. Journal of Personality 1996;64(3):577–92.Google Scholar

46. McCrae, RR. Creativity, divergent thinking, and openness to experience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1987;52(6):1258–65.Google Scholar

47. Furnham, A, Chamorro-Premuzic, T. Personality, intelligence, and general knowledge. Learning and Individual Differences 2006;16:79–90.Google Scholar

48. Mussell, P. Epistemic curiosity and related constructs: Lacking evidence of discriminant validity. Personality and Individual Differences 2010;49(5):506–10.Google Scholar

49. Furnham, A, Swami, V, Arteche, A, Chamorro-Premuzic, T. Cognitive ability, learning approaches and personality correlates of general knowledge. Educational Psychology 2008;28(4):427–37.Google Scholar

50. DeYoung, CG, Peterson, JB, Higgins, DM. Sources of openness/intellect: Cognitive and neuropsychological correlates of the fifth factor of personality. Journal of Personality 2005;73(4):825–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

51. Akbik, FV, Bhagat, SM, Patel, PR, Cafferty, WB, Strittmatter, SM. Anatomical plasticity of adult brain is titrated by Nogo Receptor 1. Neuron 2013;77(5):859–66.Google Scholar

52. Heishman, SJ, Kleykamp, BA, Singleton, EG. Meta-analysis of the acute effects of nicotine and smoking on human performance. Psychopharmacology 2010;210(4):453–69.Google Scholar

53. Bagot, KS, Kaminer, Y. Efficacy of stimulants for cognitive enhancement in non-attention deficit hyperactivity disorder youth: A systematic review. Addiction 2014;109(4):547–57.Google Scholar

54. Damasio, A. Descartes’ Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain. New York: Penguin Books; 2005.Google Scholar

55. Michael, K, Young, L, Adolphs, R, Tranel, D, Cushman, F, Hauser, M, et al. Damage to the prefrontal cortex increases utilitarian moral judgements. Nature 2007;446(7138):908–11.Google Scholar

56. Urban, KR, Gao, W-J. Performance enhancement at the cost of potential brain plasticity: Neural ramifications of nootropic drugs in the healthy developing brain. Frontiers in Systems of Neuroscience 2014; available at http://journal.frontiersin.org/Journal/10.3389/fnsys.2014.00038 (last accessed 15 May 2014).Google Scholar

57. Pearce, D. The Hedonistic Imperative; 1995; available at http://www.hedweb.com/hedethic (last accessed 15 May 2014).Google Scholar

58. Oishi, S, Diener, E, Lucas, RE. The optimal level of well-being: Can we be too happy? Perspectives on Psychological Science 2007;2:346–60.Google Scholar

59. Inglehart, R, Foa, R, Peterson, C, Welzel, C. Development, freedom, and rising happiness: A global perspective (1981−2007). Perspectives on Psychological Science 2008;3(4):264–85.Google Scholar

60. Goudie R, Mukherjee S, De Neve JE, Oswald AJ, Wu S. Happiness as a driver of risk-avoiding behavior: A conceptual framework with an application to seatbelt wearing and automobile accidents. Paper no. CEP 1126. Centre for Economic Performance, London School of Economics; 2012.

61. James, HS. Is the just man a happy man? An empirical study of the relationship between ethics and subjective well-being. Kyklos 2011;64(2):193–212.Google Scholar

62. See note 58, Oishi et al. 2007.

63. Walker, M. Happy-People-Pills for All. West Sussex: John Willey & Sons; 2013.Google Scholar

64. De Neve, JE, Christakis, NA, Fowler, JH, Frey, BS. Genes, economics and happiness. Journal of Neuroscience, Psychology, and Economics 2012:5(4):193–211.Google Scholar

65. Rietveld, CA, Cesarini, D, Benjamin, DJ, Koellinger, PD, De Neve, J-E, Tiemeier, H, et al. Molecular genetics and subjective well-being. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2013;110(24):9692–7.Google Scholar

66. Krebs, TS, Johansen, P-Ø. Psychedelics and mental health: A population study. PLOS One 2013;8(8):1–9.Google Scholar

67. Kraehenmann, R, Preller, KH, Scheidegger, M, Pokorny, T, Bosch, OG, Seifritz, E, et al. Psilocybin-induced decrease in amygdala reactivity correlates with enhanced positive mood in healthy volunteers. Biological Psychiatry; forthcoming; available at http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006322314002753 (last accessed 15 May 2014).Google Scholar

68. See note 8, Fröding 2011, at 232.