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Standing for Ecosystems—Going Dutch

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 January 2009

Gerrit Betlem
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Extract

Traditionally, common lawyers are used to examining other jurisdictions of their legal family as a source of inspiration for law reform or even as persuasive authority for the development of case law. Developments in continental civil law jurisdictions are less noted. However, particularly in the field of public law, English law is now being influenced by civil law concepts through the mediation of Community law.1 Product liability provides an example in private law of rules shared by the civil and common law jurisdictions of the European Union due to harmonisation by the Product Liability Directive. An important new area of non-contractual liability is environmental liability. Firmly established in the United States, liability for damage to the environment is increasingly being introduced in many countries around the world.3 In the European Union, the first step towards Community-wide legislation was taken in March 1993 with the publication of a Green Paper by the Commission.4 One of the many controversial aspects of a possible environmental liability regime is the issue of standing to sue.

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Articles
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The Cambridge Law Journal , Volume 54 , Issue 1 , March 1995 , pp. 153 - 170
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Copyright © Cambridge Law Journal and Contributors 1995

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References

1 See Koopmans, T., “European Public Law: Reality and Prospects” [1991]Google Scholar P.L. 53,58; Nicholas Grief, The Domestic Impact of the European Convention on Human Rights as Mediated through Community Law” [1991] P.L. 555; Tatham, Allan F., “Restitution of charges and duties levied by the public administration in breach of European Community Law: a comparative analysis” (1994) 19Google Scholar E.L.Rev. 146, 153; Szyszczak, Erika, “Current Survey: United Kingdom” (1994) 19Google Scholar E.L.Rev. 214.

2 Council Directive 85/374/EEC of 25 July 1985 on the approximation of the laws, regulations and administrative provisions of the Member States concerning liability for defective products, O.J. 1985 L 210/29.

3 See for international surveys the journal Environmental Liability and the Financial Times Environmental Liability Report.

4 Communication from the Commission to the Council and Parliament and the Economic and Social Committee: Green Paper on Remedying Environmental Damage, COM (93) 47.

5 Ibid., p. 11.

6 See Jessurun-d'Oliveira, H.U., “Protection of Diffuse, Fragmented and Collective Interests in Civil Litigation” Netherlands International Law Review 1983, 161;Google ScholarReich, Norbert, Europāisches Verbrauchershutzrecht [European Consumer Protection Law] (Baden-Baden 1993).Google Scholar

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10 See Nieuwenhuis, J.H., “Zij die geboren worden groeten u” [Those to be born salute you] Rechtsgeleerd Magazijn Themis 1988, 359Google Scholar(the author is currently a judge in the Dutch Supreme Court); Opinion of A-G Koopmans in Dutch Supreme Court 24 April 1992, Tijdschrift voor milieuaansprakelijkheidlEnvironmental Liability Law Review 1992, 137 (the Advocate General is a former judge in the European Court of Justice); Supreme Court of the Philippines Minors Oposa v. Secretary of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources 33 I.L.M. 173 (1994).

11 UN-ECE Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes, Helsinki, 17 March 1992, 31 I.L.M. (1992) 1312, Art. 2(5)c. This article constitutes the adoption of the principle of sustainable development in the context of transboundary water pollution: Nollkaemper, André, The Legal Regime for Transboundary Water Pollution: Between Discretion and Constraint (Dordrecht/Boston/London 1993), p. 82.Google Scholar

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13 This article does not deal with questions of private international law, such as the law applicable to environmental liability disputes or the recognition of non-resident public interest groups' capacity to file suit (see Hague Conference on Private International Law, “Note on the law applicable to civil liability for environmental damage”, Preliminary Document No. 9 of May 1992). Given the inherent international nature of many forms of pollution these matters should be considered in any future EC legal instrument on environmental liability.

14 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, 14 June 1992, 31 I.L.M. 874 (1992); Johnson, Stanley P., The Earth Summit: The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) (London/Dordrecht/Boston 1993), p. 119.Google Scholar

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16 A European Community programme of Policy and Action in relation to the Environment and Sustainable Development, COM(92) 23 final—vol. II (at pp. 76, 77); O.J. 1993 C 138/5; approved by the Council in its resolution of 1 February 1993,0.J. 1993 C 138/1.

17 See generally Wellens, K.C. and Borchardt, CM., “Soft Law in European Community Law” (1989) 14Google Scholar E.L.Rev. 267.

18 Council Directive 90/313/EEC of 7 June 1990 on the freedom of access to information on the environment, O.J. 1990 L 158/56.

19 Jans, J.H., Ewopees Milieurecht in Nederland [European Environmental Law in the Netherlands] (Groningen 1991), p. 78.Google Scholar

20 O.J. 1991 C 192/6.

21 O.J. 1994 C 43/15 (pending). It was also raised, but not decided, in Case T-461/93 An Taisce and WWF/. Commission [1994] ECR not yet reported (judgment of 23 September 1994).

22 Lugano, 21 June 1993, European Treaty Series 150; 32 I.L.M. 1228 (1993), Article 18.

23 Cf. Hague Conference, op. cit. note 13, p. 32.

24 See also James Cameron, “Public Interest Litigation” in Vaughan, D., ed., Environment & Planning Law in the EC (London 1991);Google Scholar Martin Fuhr and Gerhard Roller, eds., Participation and Litigation Rights of Environmental Associations in Europe (Frankfurt am Main etc. 1991), Studies of the Environmental Law Network International, vol. 1.

25 See Ann Carette, “Wet betreffende een vorderingsrecht inzake bescherming van het leefmilieu” [Act concerning a Right of Action regarding Protection of the Environment] Rechtskundig Weekbiad 1992–1993, 1392.

26 Salmond and Heuston on the Law of Tons, 20th ed., by Heuston, R.F.V. and Buckley, R.A. (London 1992), pp. 57,Google Scholar 65, 66. Cf. for t h e issue of strict liability: Cambridge Water Company v. Eastern Counties Leather plc [1994] 2 W.L.R. 53.

27 I.H. Jacob, “Access to Justice in England” in Cappelletti, Mauro and Garth, Bryant, eds., Access to Justice—A World Survey, vol. I, book I (Alphen aan den Rhijn/Milan 1978), pp. 417, 471.Google Scholar

28 R. v. Secretary of State for the Environment, ex pane Rose Theatre Trust Co. [1990] 1 Q.B. 504; (1990) 2 Journal of Environmental Law 224, note by J.D.C. Harte.

29 R. v. Inspectorate of Pollution, ex pane Greenpeace Ltd. [1994] 2 C.M.L.R. 548, [1994]4 All E.R. 329; (1994) 6 J.E.L. 297 n o t e by Michael Purdue.

30 See e.g. Pannick, David, Sex Discrimination Law (Oxford 1985), p. 272Google Scholarff. See also R. v. Secretary of State for Employment, exparte Equal Opportunities Commission [1994] 2 W.L.R. 409 and the comment by Sarah Moore in (1994) 19 E.L.Rev. 425,430.

31 See Morris, Gillian S., “Industrial Action: Public and Private Interests” (1993) 22Google Scholar l.L.J. 194 and “Public or Private? The Citizen's Right of Action in Industrial Disputes” [1993] PL. 595.

32 See Cour de Cassation, Chambre Criminelle 23 June 1987, Tijdschrift voor milieuaansprakelijkheidlEnvironmental Liability Law Review 1987, 90; see also Martin, Gilles, “La Responsabilité Civile du fait des Déchets en Droit Francais” Revue Internationale de Droit Comparé 1—1992,65,75.Google Scholar

33 Spanish Supreme Court 1 April 1993, [1993] Environmental Liability CS77.

34 See Kloepfer, op. cit. note 8, p. 128 IT.; p. 268 ff.; p. 579 IT.; but see for some limited forms of actiones populares p. 423 and p. 509; Greve, Michael S., “The Non-Reformation of Administrative Law: Standing to Sue and Public Interest Litigation in West German Environmental Law” (1989) 22 Cornell International Law Journal 197.Google Scholar

35 See Backes, Chris, Juridische bescherming van ecologisch waardevolle gebieden [Legal Protection of Ecologically Valuable Sites] (Zwolle 1993), p. 441.Google Scholar

36 See Hager, Günter, “Umwelthaftungsgesetz: The New German Environmental Liability Law” [1993] Environmental Liability 41;Google ScholarHoffmann, William C., “Germany's New Environmental Liability Act: Strict Liability for Facilities Causing Pollution” Netherlands International Law Review 1991, 27.Google Scholar

37 See, e.g., Greve, Michael S., “The Private Enforcement of Environmental Law” (1990) 65 Tulane Law Review 339;Google Scholar Hague Conference, op. cit. note 13, p. 34.

38 See the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), and for the possible application of CERCLA in international disputes: Obstler, Peter, “Toward a Working Solution to Global Pollution: Importing CERCLA to Regulate the Export of Hazardous Waste” (1991) 16 Yale Journal of International Law 73.Google Scholar

39 Supreme Court 27 June 1986, Nederlandse Jurisprudent 1987,743 note by Heemskerk; see also Hans Ulrich Jessurun d'Oliveira, “Group Actions in Civil Procedure” in Hondius, E.H. and Steenhoff, G.J.W., eds., Netherlands Reports to the Thirteenth International Congress of Comparative Law Montreal—1990 (The Hague 1990), p. 135.Google Scholar

40 Article 6:162 Dutch Civil Code reads:

“1. A person who commits a n unlawful act towards another which can b e imputed to him, must repair the damage which the other person suffers as a consequence thereof. 2. Except where there is a ground of justification, the following acts are deemed to be unlawful: the violation of a right, a n act or omission violating a statutory duty or a rule of unwritten law pertaining to proper social conduct. 3. An unlawful act can be imputed to its author if it results from his fault or from a cause for which he is answerable according to law or common opinion.” Cited from Haanappel, P.P.C. and Mackaay, Ejan, New Netherlands Civil Code: Patrimonial Law (Deventer–Boston 1990).Google Scholar

41 See van Buuren, P.J.J., Kringen van belanghebbenden [Circles of Interested Parties] (Deventer 1978),Google Scholar and in German: Peter J.J. van Buuren, “Möglichkeiten der Klageerhebung durch Umweltverbände im Verwaltungsrecht und im Privatrecht” [Possibilities for public interest groups to apply to the courts in administrative and private law] in Marburger, Peter, ed., Jahrbuch des Umwelt- und Technikrechts 1990, p. 381;Google ScholarStorme, Matthias E., “De eigendom van het wild en de jachtvergunning” [Ownership of Game and the Licence to Hunt] in Te PAS (Deventer 1992), p. 253.Google Scholar

42 Supreme Court 18 December 1992, Nederlandse Jurisprudentie 1994, 139 note by Scheltema and Brunner.

43 Cited from Betlem, Gerrit, Civil Liability for Transfrontier Pollution (London/Dordrecht/Boston 1993), pp. 324, 325.Google Scholar

44 Act of 6 April 1994 on the Regulation of the Entitlement to Sue by Certain Legal Persons for the Protection of Interests of Others, Staatsblad 1994, No. 269.

45 See Nederlands Jwistenblad 1994, p. 855 and Carla Joustra, “Group Actions Act” [1994] Consum.LJ. C582.

46 Helsinki, 17 March 1992, 31 I.L.M. 1312 (1992), Art. 2(2)d: “The Parties shall, in particular, take all appropriate measures: T o ensure conservation, and when necessary, restoration of ecosystems.”

47 Paris, 22 September 1992, 32 I.L.M. 1069 (1993); Traclalenblad 1993, 16.

48 Convention of 2 June 1988, 27 I.L.M. 859 (1988), Art. 8(2).

49 Rio d e Janeiro, 5 June 1992; Johnson, op. cit. note 14, p. 81; 31 I.L.M. 818 (1992).

50 See note 14 above.

51 Note 22 above; see in particular the definition of “environment” in Article 2(10): “Environment includes:—natural resources both abiotic and biotic, such as air, water, soil, fauna and flora and the interaction between the same factors;…”

52 Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora, O.J. 1992 L 206/7.

53 Consideration 4.1.5. of Kuunders; case note by Damen in (1993) De Gemeentestem No. 6970, p. 411.

54 Cf. Article 3:13 Civil Code; see also the Belgian Act referred to in note 25 (the Belgian Code of Civil Procedure's vexatious plaintiff provision is linked to the new Act).

55 Note 42 above.

56 See more generally Betlem, op. cit. note 43, p. 356.

57 Supreme Court 24 November 1989, Nederlandse Jurisprudentie 1992,404 note by Verkade; in English: Betlem, Ibid., p. 122.

58 See in particular Court of Appeal Den Haag 19 November 1992, Tijdschrift voor Milieuaansprakelijkheidl Environmental Liability Law Review 1993, 131 note by De Vries; Betlem, Ibid., pp. 403 and 420.

59 District court Rotterdam 15 March 1991, (1992) 23 Netherlands Yearbook of International Law (NYIL) 513; Tijdschrift voor milieu-aansprakelijkheidl Environmental Liability Law Review 1992, 27 note by Van Maanen.

60 (1992) 23 NYIL 514. See also Fred J. Rutgers, “Sea-bird Protection Under Dutch Tort Law: The Judgment of the Rotterdam District Court of 15 March 1991” in Ralph Kröner, P., ed., Transnational Environmental Liability and Insurance (London/Dordrecht/Boston 1993), p. 79Google Scholar; Hans Ulrich Jessurun d'Oliveira, Class Actions in Relation to Cross-Border Pollution. A Dutch Perspective, EUI Working Paper LAW No. 91/19, p. 56; Betlem, op. cit., note 43, p. 502.

61 See Article 21.4 (Dutch) Environmental Protection Act: “ In this Act and the provisions based thereon, the interests consigned to public authorities, and the interests for the promotion of which private legal persons were established, shall be regarded as their own interests.” See also President of the district court Roermond 3 June 1993, Tijdschrift voor Milieu en Recht 1993, p. 496. It is beyond the scope of this article to discuss the complex relationship of the Borcea case with the Collective Actions Act.

62 See Jacques Herbots, “Economic loss in the legal systems of the continent” in Michael Furmston, P., ed., The Law of Tort: Policies and Trends in Liability for Damages to Property and Economic Loss (London 1986), pp. 137Google Scholar, 143.

63 See also Bauw, E. and Frenk, N, “Nieuwe perspectieven voor milieu-organisaties” [New Perspectives for Environmental Protection Organisations] Nederlands Juristenblad 1991Google Scholar, 1259.

64 Note 48 above; see Article 8(2)d: “An Operator shall be strictly liable for: reimbursement of reasonable costs by whomsoever incurred [emphasis added] relating to necessary response action, including prevention, containment, clean up and removal measures, and action taken to restore the status quo ante where Antarctic mineral resource activities undertaken by that Operator result in or threaten to result in damage to the Antarctic environment or dependent or associated ecosystems.”

65 Brussels, 29 November 1969, Tractatenblad 1970, 196; 9 I.L.M. 45 (1970), as amended; see Article 1(7): “‘Preventive measures’ means any reasonable measures taken by any person after an accident has occurred to prevent or minimize pollution damage” (emphasis added).

66 Convention on Civil Liability for Damage caused during Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road, Rail and Inland Navigation Vessels, Geneva, 10 October 1989, Uniform Law Review 1989—I, p. 281 (pp. 219–236 of Kröner, op. cit. note 60) Explanatory Report by Malcolm Evans, Uniform Law Review 1991—I, pp. 78–183, Article 1(11).

67 Cf. Niels Frenk and Ward Messer, “Ongekende mogelijkheden voor milieuorganisaties!?” [Unprecedented Opportunities for Environmental Protection Organisations] Kwartaalbericht Nieuw BW 1991, 14 for similar possibilities under Dutch strict liability for dangerous substances.

68 Above note 20; Article 4(3): “Common interest groups or associations, which have as their object the protection of nature and the environment, shall have the right either to seek any remedy under paragraph l(b) … ”. Whereas paragraph l(b)(iii) provides as remedy: “ … the reimbursement of costs lawfully incurred in reinstating the environment and in taking preventive measures (including costs of damage caused by preventive measures)”.

69 Note 22 above.

70 D'Oliveira, loc. cit. note 6, p. 168.

71 See Konrad, Zweigert and Hein, Kotz, Introduction to Comparative Law, translated by Tony, Weir, 2nd ed. (Oxford 1994), p. 646.Google Scholar

72 It is sometimes necessary to distinguish carefully between the terms “European Union law” and “Community law”: see Editorial Note on Post-Maastricht Terminology, “Names after Maastricht” [1994] 1 C.M.L.R.4.

73 See generally Betlem, op. cit. note 43, pp. 182 258.

74 Case 222/84 Johnston v. Chief Constable of the Royal Ulster Constabulary [1986] E.C.R. 1651, § 18; see also Opinion of A-G Darmon in Case C-228/92 Roquette Frères v. Hauptzollamt Geldern [1994] E.C.R. 1–1445, No.51.

75 See in particular, concerning judicial review, Case 222/86 UNECTEF v. Heylens [1987] E.C.R. 4097; Case C-340/89 Vlassopoulou [1991] E.C.R. 1–2357: Case C-104/91 Aguirre Borrell and others [1992] E.C.R. 1–3003; Case C-97/91 Borelli[1992] E.C.R. 1–6313; Case C-19/92 Kraus [1993] E.C.R. 1–1663.

76 Joined Cases C-87–89/90 Verholen and others [1991] E.C.R. 1–3757, § 24.

77 Case C-271/91 Marshall II [1993] E.C.R. 1–4367; [1994] Q.B. 126.

78 Resolution of the Council and the Representatives of the Governments of the Member States, meeting within the Council of 1 February 1993 on a Community programme of policy and action in relation to the environment and sustainable development, O.J. 1993 C 138/1.

79 Bulletin EC 6—1990, 19. See on the legal effect of resolutions and declarations: Kapteyn, P.J.G. and VerLoren van Themaat, P., ed. Gormley, Laurence W., Introduction to the Law of the European Communities, 2nd ed. (Deventer—Boston 1990), p. 187.Google Scholar

80 Case C-322/88 Grimaldi v. Fonds des Maladies Professionelles [1989] E.C.R. 4407. Applied by the court in Case C-188/91 Deutsche Shell AG v. Hauptzollanu Hamburg-Harburg [1993] E.C.R. 1–363, §18.

81 [1989] E.C.R. 4421.

82 Wellens/Borchardt, loc. cit. note 17, pp. 318, 319.

83 See Case 71/76 Thieffry [1977] E.C.R. 765, § 14, Case C-362/88 GB-1NNO-BM [1990] ECR 1–667, § 14–18, and Case C-ll/92 R. v. Secretary of State for Health, ex parte Gallaher Ltd. [1993] E.C.R. 1–3545, §15.

84 Judgment of 30 June 1993, Publ. E.C.H.R. Series A, vol. 246; (1993) 16 E.H.R.R. 462, Sigurjónsson v. Iceland, § 35. Incidentally, it follows from this judgment that, through the mediation of the Convention, the EU Maastricht Social Protocol has a bearing on English law: see the case note by Alkema in Nederlandse Jurisprudentie 1994, 223.

85 See also Nollkaemper, op. cit., note 11, p. 240; and cf. Ludwig Krämer, “Community Environmental Law—Towards a Systematic Approach” in Barav, A. and Wyatt, D.A., eds., 11 Yearbook of European Law 1991 (Oxford 1992), pp. 151, 1961.Google Scholar

86 Administrative Disputes Division of the Council of State 26 September 1989, (1991) 21 Netherlands Yearbook of International Law 445; see also Nollkaemper, Ibid., p. 245; and Supreme Court 7 May 1993, Administratiefrechtelijke BeslissingenlNJ 1993, 440 note by Loenen.

87 Wadman v. Carpenter Farrer Partnership (1994) 19 E.L.Rev. 104 note by Dine and Watt. See also Erika Szyszczak, “Equal Opportunities for Men and Women: The Third Medium Term Community Action Programme 1991–1995”, (1991) 20 I.L.J. 156, 158.