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JUVENILE INFORMERS: IS IT APPROPRIATE TO USE CHILDREN AS COVERT HUMAN INTELLIGENCE SOURCES?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 September 2020

Alisdair A. Gillespie Open the ORCID record for Alisdair A. Gillespie [Opens in a new window]
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Abstract

Recently, attention has been given to the question as to whether children should be used as covert human intelligence sources (CHIS), aka informers. Being a CHIS is a risky endeavour, particularly when the person is deployed against serious crime, for example, gang violence. Questions arise over the propriety of using adolescents as CHIS, and whether the regulation of covert sources serves to minimise the risk to them. This article considers the regulatory environment. It concludes that the use of juveniles as CHIS can be justified, but that additional safeguards must be put in place to ensure their safety.

Keywords

covert surveillanceinformersregulatory oversightpolicechildren
Type
Articles
Information
The Cambridge Law Journal , Volume 79 , Issue 3 , November 2020 , pp. 459 - 489
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge Law Journal and Contributors 2020

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Footnotes

*

Professor of Criminal Law and Justice, Lancaster University. I would like to thank Professor David Campbell and Samantha Magor for their comments on this article. All errors are, of course, my own.

References

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33 Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000, s. 29(5)(a).

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40 Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Juveniles) Order 2000, SI 2000/2793.

41 Ibid., art. 3.

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44 A.A. Gillespie, “Juvenile Informers” in Billingsley, Covert Human Intelligence Sources, 112, discusses the historical position of the legislation.

45 Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Juveniles) Order 2000, SI 2000/2793, art. 6.

46 Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Juveniles)(Amendment) Order 2018, SI 2018/715.

47 Ibid., art. 3.

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50 Gillespie, A.A. and Clark, D., “Using Juvenile Test Purchasers” (2002) 7 J.Civ.Lib. 3Google Scholar. The Licensing Act 2003, s. 154(2) also arguably establishes an alternative basis for the legality of using juvenile CHIS in such operations.

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66 Children Act 1989, s. 2(2).

67 Adoption and Children Act 2002, s. 46(2).

68 Children Act 1989, s. 8(1) when read in conjunction with s. 12(2).

69 Children Act 1989, s. 4A.

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71 Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Juveniles) Order 2000, SI 2000/2793, art. 5(c).

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74 Balsdon, Juvenile Informants, 15.

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83 Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000, s. 28(5)(e).

84 Dodge, “Juvenile Police Informants”, 238.

85 Balsdon, Juvenile Informants, 13 (reporting what an informant handler told him).

86 Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Juveniles) Order 2000, SI 2000/2793, art. 5(b).

87 Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000, s. 26(5)(a).

88 Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Juveniles) Order 2000, SI 2000/2793, art. 5.

89 Gillespie, “Juvenile Informers”, 118.

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96 Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Juveniles) Order 2000, SI 2000/2793, art. 5.

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101 HL Deb. vol. 793 col. 445 (16 October 2018).

102 Gillick v West Norfolk and Wisbech Area Health Authority [1986] A.C. 112.

103 Re D (A Child) [2019] UKSC 42, [2019] 1 W.L.R. 5403.

104 Ibid., at [2].

105 Ibid., at [21]. Gillick arguably being the most explicit modern pronouncement of this.

106 Ibid., at [74].

107 Home Office, Revised Code of Practice, para. 5.8.

108 Balsdon, Juvenile Informants, 29.

109 Dennis, “Collateral Damage”, 1174.

110 Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Juveniles) Order 2000, SI 2000/2793, art. 3.

111 HL Deb. vol. 793 col. 445 (16 October 2018).

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113 Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984, s. 58. In a similar way to under section 58, the police could refuse a particular appropriate officer where a senior officer believes that it would compromise the investigation.

114 Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Juveniles) Order 2000, SI 2000/2793, art. 4(3).

115 Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Juveniles) (Amendment) Order 2018, SI 2018/715, art. 2(2).

116 Home Office, Revised Code of Practice, para. 4.3.

117 Home Office, Code of Practice (Code C) (2018), para. 1.7.

118 HL Deb. vol. 792 col. 129GC (18 October 2018).

119 Crime and Disorder Act 1998, s. 34(4).

120 See https://www.appropriateadult.org.uk (last accessed 29 September 2019).

121 Glasser, “The Little Guy”, 697.

122 R. (Just for Kids Law) v Secretary of State [2019] EWHC 1772 (Admin), at [64].

123 Code of Practice (Code C), para. 1.7A.

124 Crime and Disorder Act 1998, s. 34(4)(a).

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133 Annual Report of the Chief Surveillance Commissioner for 2016–2017 (HC 299), 2.

134 Investigatory Powers Act 2016, s. 234.

135 Ibid., s. 234(6).

136 Letter from Sir Adrian Fulford to Harriet Harman MP dated 24 August 2018, available at https://ipco.org.uk/docs/IPCO's%20letter%20to%20Harriet%20Harman%20MP%20(24-08-18).PDF) (last accessed 4 October 2019).

137 California Penal Code, s. 701.5(b).

138 HL Deb. vol. 793 col. 441 (16 October 2018).

139 Ibid.

140 HL Deb. vol. 793 col. 449 (16 October 2018).

141 Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000, s. 32A, inserted by Protection of Freedoms Act 2012, s. 38(1).

142 Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Covert Human Intelligence Sources: Relevant Sources) Order 2013, SI 2013/2788.

143 Ibid., art. 4(1) when read in conjunction with art. 2.

144 See e.g. “Undercover Police Had Children with Activists”, The Guardian, 20 January 2012.

145 This is although the long-term authorisation (beyond 12 months) requires the approval of a judicial commissioner, and not just a notification (Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Covert Human Intelligence Sources: Relevant Sources) Order 2013, SI 2013/2788, art. 3).

146 Lord Judge, “Annual Report of the Chief Surveillance Commissioner 2016–2017” (HC 299, 2017), 8.

147 See e.g. Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000, s. 36. The extent to which it was truly urgent will be specifically considered by the judicial commissioner.

148 Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Juveniles) Order 2000, SI 2000/2793, art. 6.

149 Home Office, Revised Code of Practice, para. 5.32.

150 A failure to do so would lead to adverse comment in a report and would also be actionable in the Investigatory Powers Tribunal.

151 Investigatory Powers Commissioner's Office, Annual Report 2017 (HC 1780, 2018), 15.

152 Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Juveniles) Order 2000, SI 2000/2793, art. 6 as amended.

153 See e.g. Bigaeva v Greece (Application no. 26713/05) and Bărbulescu v Romania (Application no. 61496/08), at [70].

154 Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Juveniles) Order 2000, SI 2000/2793, art. 6.

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158 Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000, ss. 43(6), 43(7).

159 Home Office, Revised Code of Practice, para. 8.9.

160 HL Deb. vol. 793 col. 436 (16 October 2018).

161 Letter from Baroness Williams, Minister of State, to Lord Paddick dated 25 October 2018 (obtained by the author through a freedom-of-information request).

162 HL Deb. vol. 793 col. 436 (16 October 2018).

163 Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000, s. 29(4).

164 As it is with intrusive surveillance: Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000, s. 35(1).

165 D. Lowe, “Handling Informers” in J.A. Eterno and C. Roberson (eds.), The Detective's Handbook (Abingdon 2015), 200.

166 Dunnighan and Norris, “A Risky Business”.

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