Published online by Cambridge University Press: 06 July 2017
In this article, I revisit a familiar narrative format of the moral narrative that I argue is used to narrate stories of (especially) women in the public sphere in Kenya. Reading a range of media texts, I trace a pattern of representation that I identify as contained within a recognizable genre of the moral narrative and use this genre to identify a structure of narrative of issues around gender and sexuality in Kenya. The examples are drawn from a popular radio drama program as well as from popular press reports of wayward women. The article also engages counter-narratives created by women such Vera Sidika and Huddah Monroe who, by publicly displaying their near-naked bodies in public platforms, create room for a counter-reading of discourses of gender and sexuality in the Kenyan public imaginary. This article will push the boundaries for reading popular cultural forms caught within generic constraints and reflect on the value counter-readings have in complicating readings of gender and sexuality in Kenya more generally.
1 Newell, Stephanie, ed., Writing African Women: Popular Culture and Literature in West Africa (London: Zed Books, 1997), 1–2 Google Scholar.
2 Barber, Karin, “Popular Arts in Africa,” African Studies Review 30.3 (1987): 1–78 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
3 Joyce Nyairo. “ ‘Reading the Referents’: (Inter)Textuality in Contemporary Kenyan Popular Music,” unpublished thesis (University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2004), xi.
4 Barber, Karin, The Anthropology of Texts, Person and Publics: Oral and Written Culture in Africa and Beyond (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 34 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
5 Ibid., 34.
6 Ibid.
7 Daniel Chandler, An Introduction to Genre Theory, http://www.aber.ac.za/media/documents/intgenre/chandler_genre_theory.pdf, accessed April 13, 2017.
8 Feuer, Jane, “Genre Study and Television,” Channels of Discourse, Reassembled: Television and Contemporary Criticism, ed. Robert C Allen (London: Routledge, 1992): 138–159 Google Scholar.
9 Singhal, Arvind, Cody, Michael, Rogers, Everett, and Sabido, Miguel, Entertainment-Education and Social Change: History, Research and Practice (Mahwah, NJ; London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2004): 3–20 Google Scholar.
10 Jones, Jennifer Lynn and Weber, Brenda R., “Reality Moms, Real Monsters: Transmediated Continuity, Reality Celebrity, and the Female Grotesque,” Camera Obscura 88, 30.1 (2015): 11–39 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
11 Ibid., 13.
12 Ibid.
13 Ibid.
14 Kinder, Marsha, Playing with Power in Movies, Television and Video Games: From Muppet Babies to Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1991)Google Scholar.
15 Jenkins, Henry, Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide (New York: New York University Press, 2006)Google Scholar.
16 Jones and Weber, “Reality Mums, Real Monsters,” 13.
17 Ibid., 14–15.
18 Tappan, Mark and Brown, Lyn, “Stories Told and Lessons Learned: Toward a Narrative Approach to Moral Development and Moral Education,” Harvard Educational Review 59.2 (1989): 182–206 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
19 Ibid.
20 Turner, Jeffrey, “To Tell a Good Tale: Kierkegaardian Reflections on Moral Narrative and Moral Truth,” Man and World 24.2 (1991): 181–198 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
21 Fluck, Winfried, “Popular Culture as a Mode of Socialization: A Theory about the Social Functions of Popular Cultural Forms,” The Journal of Popular Culture 21.3 (1987): 31–46 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
22 Barber, “Popular Arts in Africa,” 1–78.
23 Fabian, Johannes, “Popular Culture in Africa: Findings and Conjectures,” Africa 48.4 (1978): 315–334 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
24 Fluck, “Popular Culture as a Mode of Socialization,” 31, 32.
25 Ibid.
26 Ogola, George, Popular Media in Kenyan History: Fiction and Newspapers as Political Actors (New York: Springer International, 2017)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
27 Newell, Stephanie, Ghanaian Popular Fiction: “Thrilling Discoveries in Conjugal Life” and Other Tales (Oxford: James Currey, 2000)Google Scholar.
28 Nyairo, “Reading the Referents,” xi.
29 Newell, Ghanaian Popular Fiction, 5.
30 Nyairo, “Reading the Referents,” xii.
31 Fardon, Richard and Furniss, Graham, eds., African Vroadcast Cultures: Radio in Transition (Oxford: James Currey; Westport, CN: Praeger, 2000)Google Scholar. See also Gunner, Liz, Ligaga, Dina, and Moyo, Dumisani, eds., Radio in Africa: Publics, Cultures, Communities (Johannesburg: Wits University Press, 2011)Google Scholar.
32 Wasserman, Herman, Tabloid Journalism in South Africa: True Story! (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2010)Google Scholar.
33 Ligaga, Dina, “ ‘Virtual Expressions’: Alternative Online Spaces and the Staging of Kenyan Popular Cultures,” Research in African Literatures 43.4 (2012): 1–16 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
34 Frederiksen, Bodil, “Popular Culture, Gender Relations and the Democratization of Everyday Life in Kenya,” Journal of Southern African Studies, 26.2 (2000): 209–222 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
35 Brooks, Peter, The Melodramatic Imagination (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1976), ix Google Scholar.
36 Ibid.
37 Cornell, Drucilla, “What Is Ethical Feminism?” Feminist Contentions: A Philosophical Exchange, book written by Drucilla Cornell, Seyla Benhabib, Judith Butler, and Nancy Fraser (New York and London: Routledge, 1995), 75 Google Scholar.
38 Ibid.
39 Ibid., 76.
40 I start with radio drama for several reasons, prime among these the idea that radio has existed in Kenya for close to a century and that it has been under the control of both colonial and postcolonial governments in this period. Unlike newspaper print media, radio was a state-controlled medium in Kenya until recently, and as such, any program that was produced within it was influenced by the state’s agenda. In other words, the state used radio as a way of manipulating information and controlling what was circulated as entertainment. Kenyaradio, introduced in 1928 for English-speaking white settlers.
41 In a radio drama program produced for the Kenya Broadcasting Corporation (KBC), called Radio Theatre, the moral narrative is used. This is one of the longest running radio drama programs in the English language in Kenya; it features one-act plays that run for about thirty minutes every week. The plays are aired mostly on Sunday evenings. According to one of its most renowned former producers, Nzau Kalulu, it was first aired in 1982. Although there are indications that it could have aired much earlier than this date. Program line-ups from as early as 1954, for instance, show the existence of a radio drama program that was similar in structure to Radio Theatre. There is also a Kiswahili language program aired for KBC called Mchezo wa Wiki (Play of the Week), which also aired from the late 1970s. Although there is little evidence to connect these various “versions,” I nonetheless read Radio Theatre as an umbrella title for radio drama programs that dwelt in and circulated themes of everyday life in Kenya.
42 McClintock, Anne, “ ‘No Longer in a Future Heaven’: Women and Nationalism in South Africa,” Transition 51(1991): 104–123 Google Scholar.
43 Nead, Lynda, Myths of Sexuality: Representations of Women in Victorian Britain (Oxford: Blackwell, 1988): 6 Google Scholar.
44 Ibid.
45 Ibid., 6–7.
46 Ibid., 6.
47 Ibid.
48 Foucault, Michel, Archeology of Knowledge (New York: Harper & Row, 1972)Google Scholar.
49 Burke, Timothy, Lifebuoy Men, Lux Women: Commodification, Consumption, and Cleanliness in Modern Zimbabwe (London: Leicester University Press, 1996)Google Scholar. See also Mutongi, Kenda, Worries of the Heart: Widows, Family, and Community in Kenya (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
50 Tamale, Sylvia, ed., African Sexualities: A Reader (Cape Town: Pambazuka Press, 2011)Google Scholar.
51 Kanogo, Tabitha, African Womanhood in Colonial Kenya, 1900–50 (Oxford: James Currey; Nairobi: EAEP; Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2005)Google Scholar.
52 Ibid.
53 Ibid.
54 Cutrufelli, Maria, Women of Africa: Roots of Oppression (London: Zed Press, 1983)Google Scholar.
55 Akujobi, Remi, “Motherhood in African Literature and Culture,” CLC Web: Comparative Literature and Culture 13.1 (2011): 2 Google Scholar.
56 Ibid., 4.
57 Ibid., 3.
58 Obbo, Christine, African Women: Their Struggle for Economic Independence (London: Zed Press, 1980)Google Scholar.
59 Ibid.
60 Barlow, Tani, Yue Dong, Madeleine, Poige, Uta, Ramamurthy, Priti, Thomas, Lynn M., and Eve Weinbaum, Alys, “The Modern Girl Around the World: A Research Agenda and Preliminary Findings,” Gender & History 17.2 (2005): 245–294 Google Scholar.
61 Barlow et al., “Modern Girl,” 245.
62 Obbo, “African Women,” 88.
63 Ibid., 11.
64 Obiechina, Emmanuel, Onitsha Market Literature (London: Heinemann, 1972)Google Scholar.
65 Kanogo, African Womanhood in Colonial Kenya, 1900–50, 3.
66 Obbo, “African Women,” 11.
67 Ibid.
68 Ibid., 15.
69 Kanogo, African Womanhood in Colonial Kenya, 1900–50, 3.
70 Ibid.
71 Mutongi, “Worries of the Heart,” 139.
72 Kanogo, “African Womanhood,” 6.
73 Obbo, “African Women,” 88.
74 Spronk, Rachel, Ambiguous Pleasures: Sexuality and Middle Class Self-Perception in Nairobi (New York: Berghahn, 2014)Google Scholar.
76 Ibid. Text edited for clarity.
78 Bakare-Yusuf, Bibi, “Nudity and Morality: Legislating Women’s Bodies and Dress in Nigeria,” East African Journal of Peace and Human Rights 15.1 (2009): 53–68 Google Scholar.
79 http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/socialite, accessed April 23, 2016.
80 Even though this video was banned from airing on television due to what was being termed explicit material, it found its way around the Internet.
81 Senft, Theresa and Baym, Nancy, “Selfies Introduction: What Does the Selfie Say? Investigating a Global Phenomenon,” International Journal of Communication 9 (2015): 1601 Google Scholar.
82 Vera Sidika, https://www.instagram.com/p/BAe2u1DA2-P/?taken-by=queenveebosset&hl=en, accessed May 18, 2016.
83 Huddah Monroe, https://www.instagram.com/p/9taSOkyvXH/?taken-by=huddahthebosschick&hl=en, accessed May 18, 2016.