No CrossRef data available.
Article contents
Social Identity and Dental Modification at the Postclassic Maya Urban Centre of Mayapan
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 29 June 2021
Abstract
Dental modification represents one interesting aspect of corporeal adornment in human history that directly reflects personal social identity. Tooth filing choices distinguished certain individuals at the urban, Maya political capital of Mayapan from 1150 to 1450 ad, along with cranial modification, nose and ear piercings, tattoos and body paint. Here we examine how filing teeth, considered a beautification practice for women at Spanish Contact in the sixteenth century, is distributed across a skeletal sample of males, females, elites and commoners in this city. We evaluate the normative claim of the Colonial period and determine that while predominantly females filed their teeth, most women chose not to. Sculptural art further reveals that male personages associated with the city's feathered serpent priesthood exhibited filed teeth, and we explore the symbolic meaning of filed tooth shape. Assessing the practice in terms of associated archaeological contexts, chronology and bone chemistry reveals that it did not correlate with social class, dietary differences, or birthplace. Residents of Mayapan, a densely inhabited, multi-ethnic city of 20,000, engaged with multiple material expressions of belonging to intersecting imagined communities that crosscut competing influences of polity, city, hometown and family scale identity. Tooth filing reflects identities at the individual or family scale.
- Type
- Research Article
- Information
- Copyright
- Copyright © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research
References
Aldenderfer, M.S. & Stanish, C., 1993. Domestic architecture, household archaeology, and the past in the south-central Andes, in Domestic Architecture, Ethnicity, and Complementarity in the South-Central Andes, ed. Aldenderfer, M.S.. Iowa City (IA): University of Iowa Press, 1–12.Google Scholar
Ardren, T. & Hutson, S.R. (eds), 2006. The Social Experience of Childhood in Ancient Mesoamerica. Boulder (CO): University Press of Colorado.Google Scholar
Ashmore, W. 2002. Encountering Maya women, in Ancient Maya Women, ed. Ardren, T.. Walnut Creek (CA): AltaMira, 229–47.Google Scholar
Bentley, R.A., 2006. Strontium isotopes from the earth to the archaeological skeleton: a review. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 13, 135–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blom, F.F. & La Farge, O., 1926. Tribes and Temples: A record of the expedition to Middle America conducted by the Tulane University of Louisiana in 1925. New Orleans (LA): Tulane University.Google Scholar
Blumer, H., 1969. Fashion: from class differentiation to collective selection. Sociological Quarterly 10, 275–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Briggs, M., 2002. Terminal Classic to Postclassic Transition in the Maya of Northern Belize: Biological Continuity and Cultural Change in the Burials of Progresso and Honey Camp Lagoons. Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Houston.Google Scholar
Brown, C.T., 1999. Mayapan Society and Ancient Maya Social Organization. PhD dissertation, Tulane University.Google Scholar
Buikstra, J.E. & Ubelaker, D.H., 1994. Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains: Proceedings of a seminar at the Field Museum of Natural History. Fayetteville (AK): Arkansas Archaeological Survey Press.Google Scholar
Carter, N., Houston, S. & Rossi, F., 2020. The Adorned Body: Mapping ancient Maya dress. Austin (TX): University of Texas Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chase, D.Z., 1997. Southern lowland Maya archaeology and human skeletal remains, in Bones of the Maya: Studies of ancient skeletons, eds Whittington, S.L. & Reed, D.M.. Washington (DC): Smithsonian Institution Press, 15–27.Google Scholar
Chisholm, B.S., Nelson, D.E. & Schwarcz, H.P., 1982. Stable-carbon isotope ratio as a measure of marine versus terrestrial protein in ancient diets. Science 216, 1131–2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chuchiak, J.F., 2004a. Nativistic movements and the religious roots of rebellion in colonial Yucatan 1547–1697. Ketzalcalli 1(1), 44–59.Google Scholar
Chuchiak, J.F., 2004b. The images speak: The survival and production of hieroglyphic codices and their use in post-conquest Maya religion 1580–1720, in Continuity and Change: Maya religious practices in temporal perspective, eds Behrens, D.G., Grube, N., Prager, C.M., Sachse, F., Teufel, S. & Wagner, E.. Markt Schwaben: Verlag Anton Saurwein, 165–83.Google Scholar
Beziez, Cid, & L, J.R.. Sanders, Torres, 1999. Patrones de mutilación dental en el sector oeste de Teotihuacan [Patterns of dental mutilation in the western sector of Teotihuacan]. Estudios de Antropología Biológica 9, 281–94.Google Scholar
Cohen, A.P., 1994. Culture, identity and the concept of boundary. Revista de Antropología Social 3, 49–62.Google Scholar
Cruz Alvarado, W.A. 2010. Distribución y Cronología de sitios arqueológicos del centro-sur de Yucatán. Tésis profesional, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán.Google Scholar
de Landa, D., 1941. Landa's Relaciones de las Cosas de Yucatán (trans. Tozzer, A.). (Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology 18.) Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Delgado Kú, P.C., 2004. Estudio de la Arquitectura Pública del Núcleo Principal de Mayapan. Unpublished tesis de licenciatura, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán.Google Scholar
Delgado Kú, P.C., Lope, C. Peraza, Masson, M.A., Escamilla Ojeda, B.C., Alvarado, W. Cruz, Russell, B.W. & Kennett, D.J., 2021. The architecture and sculptures of a colonnaded hall and temple at the Itzmal Ch'en Group, Mayapan, in Settlement, Economy, and Society at Mayapan, Yucatan, Mexico, eds Masson, M.A., Hare, T.S., Peraza Lope, C. & Russell, B.W.. Pittsburgh (PA): Department of Anthropology, University of Pittsburgh, 119–54.Google Scholar
DeNiro, M.J. & Epstein, S., 1978. Influence of diet on the distribution of carbon isotopes in animals. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 42, 495–506.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeNiro, M.J. & Epstein, S., 1981. Influence of diet on the distribution of nitrogen isotopes in animals. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 45, 341–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dietler, M. & Herbich, I., 1998. Habitus, techniques, style: an integrated approach to the social understanding of material culture and boundaries, in The Archaeology of Social Boundaries, ed. Stark, M.. Washington (DC): Smithsonian Institution Press, 232–63.Google Scholar
Duncan, W.N. & Hofling, C.A., 2011. Why the head? Cranial modification as protection and ensoulment among the Maya. Ancient Mesoamerica 22(1), 199–210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fry, E.I., 1956. Skeletal remains from Mayapan. Carnegie Institution of Washington Current Reports 38, 551–71.Google Scholar
Geller, P.L., 2006. Altering identities: body modification and the pre-Columbian Maya, in The Social Archaeology of Funerary Remains, eds Gowland, R. & Knüsel, C.. Oxford: Oxbow, 279–91.Google Scholar
George, R.J., Culleton, B.J., Serafin, S., Masson, M.A., Peraza Lope, C., Ebert, C. & Kennett, D.J., n.d.a. Postclassic urban ecology at the political capital of Mayapan reveals dietary continuities in the mortuary population.Google Scholar
George, R.J., Serafin, S., Masson, M.A., Peraza Lope, C., Wright, L.E., Krigbaum, J., Kamenov, G. & Kennett, D.J., n.d.b. Strontium isotopic evidence reveals high levels of in-migration during the formation, apogee and decline of the Postclassic city of Mayapan.Google Scholar
Graeber, D. & Sahlins, M., 2017. Introduction, in On Kings, eds Graeber, D. & Sahlins, M.. Chicago (IL): Hau Books, 1–22.Google Scholar
Halperin, C.T., 2014. Maya Figurines: Intersections between state and household. Austin (TX): University of Texas Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamilakis, Y., Pluciennik, M. & Tarlow, S. (eds), 2002. Thinking Through the Body: Archaeologies of corporeality. New York (NY): Kluwer Academic.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hare, T.S., Masson, M.A. & Lope, C. Peraza, 2014a. The urban cityscape, in Kukulcan's Realm: Urban life at ancient Mayapan, eds Masson, M.A. & Lope, C. Peraza. Boulder (CO): University Press of Colorado, 149–92.Google Scholar
Hare, T.S., Masson, M.A. & Russell, B.W., 2014b. High-density LiDAR mapping of the ancient city of Mayapan. Remote Sensing 6, 9064–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Havill, L.M., Warren, D.M., Jacobi, K.P., Gettelman, K.D., Cook, D.C., Pyburn, K.A., 1997. Late Classic tooth filing at Chau Hiix and Tipu, Belize, in Bones of the Maya: Studies of ancient skeletons, eds Whittington, S.L. & Reed, D.M.. Washington (DC): Smithsonian Institution Press, 89–104.Google Scholar
Hinton, D.A., 1999. ‘Closing’ and the Later Middle Ages. Medieval Archaeology 43, 172–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Houston, S.D., Carter, N., & Rossi, F., 2020. The adorned body, in The Adorned Body: Mapping ancient Maya dress, eds Carter, N., Houston, S. D. & Rossi, F.. Austin (TX): University of Texas Press, 1–8.Google Scholar
Houston, S.D., Stuart, D. & Taube, K.A., 2006. The Memory of Bones: Body, being, and experience among the Classic Maya. Austin (TX): University of Texas Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Houston, S.D., & Taube, K., 2000. An archaeology of the senses: perception and cultural expression in ancient Mesoamerica. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 10(2), 261–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hutchinson, R.H.H., 2021. A comparison of Mayapan's burial patterns within ritual buildings, in Settlement, Economy, and Society at Mayapan, Yucatan, Mexico, eds Masson, M.A., Hare, T.S., Peraza Lope, C. & Russell, B.W.. Pittsburgh (PA): Department of Anthropology, University of Pittsburgh, 183–206.Google Scholar
Inomata, T., 2001a. The power and ideology of artistic creation: elite craft specialists in Classic Maya society. Current Anthropology 42(3), 321–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Inomata, T., 2001b. King's people: Classic Maya courtiers in a comparative perspective, in Royal Courts of the Ancient Maya, Volume 1: Theory, Comparison, Synthesis, eds Inomata, T. & Houston, S.D.. Boulder (CO): Westview Press, 27–53.Google Scholar
Janusek, J.W., 2004. Identity and Power in the Ancient Andes: Tiwanaku cities through time. New York (NY): Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Janusek, J.W. & Blom, D.E.., 2006. Identifying Tiwanaku urban populations: style, identity, and ceremony in Andean cities, in Urbanism and the Preindustrial World: Cross cultural Approaches, ed. Storey, G.R.. Tuscaloosa (AL): University of Alabama Press, 233–51.Google Scholar
Joyce, A., Bustamante, L., & Levine, M., 2001. Commoner power: a case study from the Classic Period collapse on the Oaxaca coast. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 8(4), 343–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Joyce, R.A., 1993. Women's work: images of production and reproduction in pre-Hispanic southern Central America. Current Anthropology 34(3), 255–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Joyce, R.A., 1998. Performing the body in pre-Hispanic Central American. RES 33, 147–65.Google Scholar
Joyce, R.A., 2000. Gender and Power in Prehispanic Mesoamerica. Austin (TX): University of Texas Press.Google Scholar
Joyce, R.A., 2005. Archaeology of the body. Annual Review of Anthropology 34, 139–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennett, D.J., Masson, M.A., Serafin, S., Culleton, B.J. & Lope, C. Peraza, 2016. War and food production at the Postclassic Maya city of Mayapan, in The Archaeology of Food and Warfare: Food insecurity in prehistory, eds VanDerwarker, M.A. & Wilson, D.G.. New York (NY): Springer, 161–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lesure, R., 2011. Interpreting Ancient Figurines and Prehistoric Art. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lesure, R., 2015. Prehistoric figurine styles as fashion: a case from Formative central Mexico. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 25(1), 99–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liebmann, M., 2013. Parsing hybridity: archaeologies of amalgamation in seventeenth-century New Mexico, in The Archaeology of Hybrid Culture, ed. Card, J.J.. Carbondale/Edwardsville (IL): Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University Press, 25–49.Google Scholar
Looper, M. 2002. Ancient Maya women-men (and men-women): classic rulers and the third gender, in Ancient Maya Women, ed. Ardren, T.. Walnut Creek (CA): AltaMira, 171–202.Google Scholar
Looper, M.G., 2009. To Be Like Gods: Dance in ancient Maya civilization. Austin (TX): University of Texas Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
López Austin, A., 1988. The Human Body and Ideology: Concepts of the ancient Nahuas. Salt Lake City (UT): University of Utah Press.Google Scholar
Loren, D.D. & Nassaney, M.S., 2010. Archaeology of Clothing and Bodily Adornment in Colonial America. Gainesville (FL): University Press of Florida.Google Scholar
Mambrol, N., 2017. Ambivalence in Post-colonialism, in Literary Theory and Criticism. https://literariness.org/2017/09/27/ambivalence-in-post-colonialism/ (accessed 4 April 2021).Google Scholar
Manzanilla, L.R., 2015. Cooperation and tensions in multiethnic corporate societies using Teotihuacan, Central Mexico, as a case study. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112(30), 9210–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marken, D.B., Guenter, S.P. & Freidel, D.A., 2017. He's Maya, but he's not my brother: exploring the place of ethnicity in Classic Maya social organization, in ‘The Only True People’: Linking Maya identities past and present, eds Beyette, B.J. & LeCount, L.J.. Boulder (CO): University Press of Colorado, 187–218.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, S. & Grube, N., 2008. Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens: Deciphering the dynasties of the ancient Maya. New York (NY): Thames & Hudson.Google Scholar
Martínez López, C., Winter, M.C. & Antonio, J.P., 1996. Entierros Humanos del Proyecto Especial Monte Albán 1992–1994 [Human burials of the Monte Alban Special Project 1992–1994], in Entierros humanos de Monte Albán: Dos estudios [Human burials from Monte Alban: Two studies], eds Winter, M.C., Martínez López, C., Autry, W., Wilkinson, R. & Juárez, P. Antonio. Oaxaca: Centro INAH Oaxaca, 79–244.Google Scholar
Masson, M.A., 2000. In the Realm of Nachan Kan: Postclassic Maya archaeology at Laguna de On, Belize. Boulder (CO): University Press of Colorado.Google Scholar
Masson, M.A., 2001. Changing patterns of ceramic stylistic diversity in the pre-Hispanic Maya lowlands. Acta Archaeologica 72, 159–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masson, M.A. & Freidel, D.A., 2012. An argument for Classic era Maya market exchange. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 31, 455–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masson, M.A. & Freidel, D.A., 2013. Wide open spaces: a long view of the importance of Maya market exchange, in Merchants, Markets and Exchange in the Pre-Columbian World, eds Hirth, K.G. & Pillsbury, J.. Washington (DC): Dumbarton Oaks, 201–28.Google Scholar
Masson, M.A., Hare, T.S. & Lope, C. Peraza, 2014. The social mosaic, in Kukulcan's Realm: Urban life at ancient Mayapan, eds Masson, M.A. & Peraza Lope, C.. Boulder (CO): University Press of Colorado, 193–269.Google Scholar
Masson, M.A., Hare, T.S., Peraza Lope, C. & Russell, B.W. (eds), 2021. Settlement, Economy, and Society at Mayapan, Yucatan, Mexico. Pittsburgh (PA): Department of Anthropology, University of Pittsburgh.Google Scholar
Masson, M.A. & Lope, C. Peraza, 2010. Evidence for Maya-Mexican interaction in the archaeological record of Mayapan, in Astronomers, Scribes, and Priests: Intellectual interchange between the northern Maya lowlands and highland Mexico in the Late Postclassic period, eds Vail, G. & Hernandez, C.. Washington (DC): Dumbarton Oaks, 77–114.Google Scholar
Masson, M.A. & Lope, C. Peraza, 2012. Figurillas y Diversidad Social en Mayapan [Figurines and Social Diversity at Mayapan], in Localidad y Globalidad en el Mundo Maya Prehispanico e Indigena Contemporaneo: Estudios de Espacio y Genero [Locality and Globality in the Prehispanic and Contemporary Indigenous Maya World: Studies of Space and Gender], eds Gallegos Gómora, M.J & Hendon, J.A.. Mexico City: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, 119–38.Google Scholar
Masson, M.A. & Lope, C. Peraza, 2014a. Kukulcan's Realm: Urban life at ancient Mayapan. Boulder (CO): University Press of Colorado.Google Scholar
Masson, M.A. & Lope, C. Peraza, 2014b. Recognizing complexity in urban life, in Kukulcan's Realm: Urban life at ancient Mayapan, eds Masson, M.A. & Peraza Lope, C.. Boulder (CO): University Press of Colorado, 541–60.Google Scholar
Masson, M.A. & Lope, C. Peraza, 2014c. Militarism, misery, and collapse, in Kukulcan's Realm: Urban life at ancient Mayapan, eds Masson, M.A. & Lope, C. Peraza. Boulder (CO): University Press of Colorado, 521–40.Google Scholar
Masson, M.A., Lope, C. Peraza, Hare, T.S., Russell, B.W., Kú, P. Delgado, Ojeda, B. Escamilla & Cobá, L. Flores, 2020. Rural economies at agrarian houselots before and after the rise of urban Mayapan, in The Real Business of Ancient Maya Exchange: From farmers’ fields to rulers’ realms, eds Masson, M.A., Freidel, D.A. & Demarest, A.A.. Gainesville (FL): University Press of Florida, 79–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masson, M.A. & Rosenswig, R.M., 2005. Production characteristics of Postclassic Maya pottery from Caye Coco, Northern Belize. Latin American Antiquity 16(4), 355–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matheny, R.T., 1970. The Ceramics of Aguacatal, Campeche, Mexico. Provo (UT): New World Archaeological Foundation.Google Scholar
Mattson, H.V. (ed.), 2021. Personal Adornment and the Construction of Identity: A global archaeological perspective. Oxford: Oxbow.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meskell, L., 1996 The somatization of archaeology: institutions, discourses, corporeality. Norweigian Archaeological Review 29(1), 1–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milbrath, S. & Lope, C. Peraza, 2003. Revisiting Mayapan: Mexico's last Maya capital. Ancient Mesoamerica 14(1), 1–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, M.E. & Brittenham, C., 2013. The Spectacle of the Maya Court: Reflections on the murals of Bonampak. Austin (TX): University of Texas Press.Google Scholar
Mullins, P., 1999. ‘A bold and gorgeous front’: the contradictions of African American and consumer culture, in Historical Archaeologies of Capitalism, eds Leone, M. & Potter, P.. New York (NY): Kluwer Academic, 169–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nassaney, M.S., 2012. Decolonizing archaeological theory at Fort St. Joseph, an eighteenth-century multi-ethnic community in the western Great Lakes Region. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 37(1), 5–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oudijk, M., 2002. The Zapotec city-state, in A Comparative Study of Six City-State Cultures, ed. Hansen, M.H.. (Historisk-filosofiske Skrifter 27.) Copenhagen: Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters, 73–90.Google Scholar
Paine, R.R. & Storey, G.R., 2006. Epidemics, age at death, and mortality in ancient Rome, in Urbanism in the Preindustrial World: Cross Cultural Approaches, ed. Storey, G.R.. Tuscaloosa (AL): University of Alabama Press, 69–85.Google Scholar
Peraza Lope, C., 1999. Mayapan: Ciudad-Capital del Postclásico {Mayapan: Postclassic capital city}. Arqueología Mexicana 7(37), 48–53.Google Scholar
Peraza Lope, C. & Masson, M.A., 2014a. An outlying temple, hall, and elite residence, in Kukulcan's Realm: Urban life at ancient Mayapan, eds Masson, M.A. & Lope, C. Peraza. Boulder (CO): University Press of Colorado, 105–48.Google Scholar
Peraza Lope, C. & Masson, M.A., 2014b. Religious practice, in Kukulcan's Realm: Urban life at ancient Mayapan, eds Masson, M.A. & Lope, C. Peraza. Boulder (CO): University Press of Colorado, 425–520.Google Scholar
Peraza Lope, C. & Masson, M.A., 2014c. Politics and monumental legacies, in Kukulcan's Realm: Urban life at ancient Mayapan, eds Masson, M.S. & Lope, C. Peraza. Boulder (CO): University Press of Colorado, 39–104.Google Scholar
Peraza Lope, C., Masson, M.A., Hare, T.S. & Kú, P. Delgado, 2006. The chronology of Mayapan: new radiocarbon evidence. Ancient Mesoamerica 17, 153–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plog, S., 1983. Analysis of style in artifacts. Annual Review of Anthropology 12, 125–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pohl, J.M.D., 2003. Creation stories, hero cults, and alliance building: confederacies of central and southern Mexico, in The Postclassic Mesoamerican World, eds Smith, M.E. & Berdan, F.F.. Salt Lake City (UT): University of Utah Press, 61–6.Google Scholar
Pollock, H.E.D., 1962. Introduction, in Mayapan, Yucatán, México, eds Pollock, H.E.D., Roys, R.L., Proskouriakoff, T. & Smith, A.L.. (Publication 619.) Washington (DC): Carnegie Institution, 1–24.Google Scholar
Pollock, H.E.D., Roys, R.L., Proskouriakoff, T. & Smith, A.L. (eds), 1962. Mayapan, Yucatan, Mexico. (Publication 619.) Washington (DC): Carnegie Institution.Google Scholar
Pounds, N.J.G., 1973. An Historical Geography of Europe: 450 B.C.–A.D. 1330. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pugh, T.W. & Rice, P.M., 2017. Early urban planning, spatial strategies, and the Maya city of Nixtun-Ch'ich’, Petén, Guatemala. Current Anthropology 58(5), 573–603.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pugh, T.W. & Shiratori, Y., 2018. Postclassic architectural traditions and the Petén Itzas, in Historical and Archaeological Perspectives on the Itzas of Petén, Guatemala, eds Rice, P.M. & Rice, D.S.. Boulder (CO): University Press of Colorado, 227–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Restall, M., 2001. The people of the patio: ethnohistoric evidence of Yucatec Maya royal courts, in Royal Courts of the Maya, Vol. 2, Data and Case Studies, eds Inomata, T. & Houston, S.D.. Boulder (CO): Westview Press, 335–90.Google Scholar
Rice, P.M., 2009. The archaeology of the Kowoj: pottery and identity, in The Kowoj: Identity, migration, and geopolitics in Late Postclassic Peten, Guatamala, eds Rice, P.M. & Rice, D.S.. Boulder (CO): University Press of Colorado, 217–19.Google Scholar
Rice, P.M. & Cecil, L.G., 2009. The iconography and decorative programs of Kowoj pottery, in The Kowoj: Identity, migration and geopolitics in Late Postclassic Peten, Guatemala, eds Rice, P.M. & Rice, D.S.. Boulder (CO): University Press of Colorado, 238–75.Google Scholar
Ringle, W.M., 2004. On the political organization of Chichén Itzá. Ancient Mesoamerica 15(2), 167–218.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ringle, W.M., Negrón, T. Gallareta & Bey, G.J. III, 1998. The return of Quetzalcoatl. Ancient Mesoamerica 9(2), 183–232.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rodríguez, Z.L. & Serrano, C., 1975. Sistema de enterramiento y notas sobre el material osteológico de La Ventilla, Teotihuacan, México [Mode of interment and notes on osteological material from La Ventilla, Teotihuacan, Mexico]. Anales del Museo Nacional de México 4, 105–44.Google Scholar
Romero Molina, J., 1986. Catálogo de la Colección de Dientes Mutilados Prehispánicos. Parte 4 [Catalogue of the Collection of Mutilated Prehispanic Teeth. Part 4]. Mexico City: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia.Google Scholar
Rosenswig, R.M., Briggs, M.L. & Masson, M.A., 2020. Burying the dead during the Maya Postclassic Period: Saxe, Binford and Goldstein's continued relevance to mortuary analysis. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 58, 101147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roys, R.L., 1962. Literary sources for the history of Mayapan, in Mayapan, Yucatan, Mexico, eds Pollock, H.E.D., Roys, R.L., Proskouriakoff, T. & Smith, A.L.. (Publication 619.) Washington (DC): Carnegie Institution, 25–86.Google Scholar
Roys, R.L., 1972. The Indian Background of Colonial Yucatan. Norman (OK): University of Oklahoma Press.Google Scholar
Russell, B.W., 2008. Postclassic Maya Settlement on the Rural-Urban Fringe of Mayapan, Yucatan, Mexico: Results of the Mayapan Periphery Project. PhD dissertation, University at Albany-SUNY.Google Scholar
Russell, J.C., 1972. Medieval Regions and Their Cities. Bloomington (IN): Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Santley, R., Yarborough, C. & Hall, B., 1987. Enclaves, ethnicity, and the archaeological record at Matacapan, in Ethnicity and Culture: Proceedings of the eighteenth annual conference of the Archaeological Association of the University of Calgary, eds Auger, R., Glass, M.F. & MacEachern, S.. Calgary: Archaeological Association, University of Calgary, 85–100.Google Scholar
Schellhas, P., 1904. Representation of Deities in the Maya Manuscripts. (Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology 4.) Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Scherer, A.K., 2015. Mortuary Landscapes of the Classic Maya: Rituals of body and soul. Austin (TX): University of Texas Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scherer, A.K., 2018. Head shaping and tooth modification among the Classic Maya of the Usumacinta River kingdoms, in Social Skins of the Head: Body beliefs and ritual in Ancient Mesoamerica and the Andes, eds Tiesler, V. & Lozada, M.C.. Albuquerque (NM): University of New Mexico Press, 59–79.Google Scholar
Schoeninger, M.J. & DeNiro, M.J., 1984. Nitrogen and carbon isotopic composition of bone collagen from marine and terrestrial animals. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 48, 625–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scholes, F.V. & Roys, R.L., 1938. Fray Diego de Landa and the problem of idolatry in Yucatan, in Cooperation in Research. (Publication 501.) Washington (DC): Carnegie Institution, 585–620.Google Scholar
Scott, E.M, 1994. Through the lens of gender: archaeology, inequality, and ‘those of little note’, in Those of Little Note: Gender, race, and class in historical archaeology, ed. Scott, E.M.. Tucson (AZ): University of Arizona Press, 3–24.Google Scholar
Scott, J., 1990. Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden transcripts. New Haven (CT): Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Serafin, S. & Lope, C. Peraza, 2007. Human sacrificial rites among the Maya of Mayapan: a bioarchaeological perspective, in New Perspectives on Human Sacrifice and Ritual Body Treatments in Ancient Maya Society, eds Tiesler, V. & Cucina, A.. New York (NY): Springer, 232–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Serafin, S., Lope, C. Peraza & González, E. Uc, 2012. La modelación cefálica entre los mayas del noroccidente de Yucatán a través de 2,000 años de historia precolombina [Cranial modelling among the Maya of northwest Yucatan over 2,000 years of Precolumbian history]. Paper presented at the 2nd International Colloquium of Bioarchaeology, 29 October, Mérida.Google Scholar
Serafin, S., Lope, C. Peraza & González, E. Uc, 2014. Bioarchaeological investigation of ancient Maya violence and warfare in inland northwest Yucatan, Mexico. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 154(1), 140–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, A.L., 1962. Residential and associated structures at Mayapan, in Mayapan, Yucatan, Mexico, eds Pollock, H.E.D., Roys, R.L., Proskouriakoff, T. & Smith, A.L.. (Publication 619.) Washington (DC): Carnegie Institution, 165–320.Google Scholar
Smith, M.E., 2004. The archaeology of ancient state economies. Annual Review of Anthropology 33, 73–102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, M.E., 2007. Form and meaning in the earliest cities: a new approach to ancient urban planning. Journal of Planning History 6(1), 3–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, M.E. & Berdan, F.F., 2003. Spatial structure of the Mesoamerican world system, in The Postclassic Mesoamerican World, eds Smith, M.E. & Berdan, F.F.. Salt Lake City (UT): University of Utah Press, 21–34.Google Scholar
Smith, R.E., 1971. The Pottery of Mayapan. (Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology 66.) Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Stockett, M.K., 2005. On the importance of difference: re-envisioning sex and gender in ancient Mesoamerica. World Archaeology 37(4), 566–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stone, A., 1988. Sacrifice and sexuality: some structural relationships in Classic Maya art, in The Role of Gender in Pre-Columbian Art and Architecture, ed. Miller, V.. Lanham (MD): University Press of America, 75–104.Google Scholar
Tainter, J., 1977. Modelling change in prehistoric social systems, in For Theory Building in Archaeology, ed. Binford, L.R.. New York (NY): Academic Press, 327–51.Google Scholar
Taube, K.A., 1985. The Classic Maya maize god: a reappraisal, in Fifth Palenque Round Table, 1983, eds Robertson, M. Greene & Fields, V.M.. San Francisco (CA): Pre-Columbian Art Research Institute, 171–81.Google Scholar
Taube, K.A., 1992. The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatan. Washington (DC): Dumbarton Oaks.Google Scholar
Taube, K.A., 2005. The symbolism of jade in Classic Maya religion. Ancient Mesoamerica 16, 23–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taube, R.B. & Taube, K.A., 2009. The beautiful, the bad, and the ugly: aesthetics and morality in Maya figurines, in Mesoamerican Figurines: Small scale indices large scale phenomena, eds Halperin, C., Faust, K., Taube, R. & Giguet, A.. Gainesville (FL): University Press of Florida, 236–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tiesler, V., 2001. Decoraciones dentales entre los antiguos mayas [Dental adornment among the ancient Maya]. Mexico City: Ediciones Euroamericanas.Google Scholar
Tiesler, V., 2005. Prácticas bioculturales y organización social en los sitios de Copán, Honduras y Xcambó, Yucatán [Biocultural practices and social organization at the sites of Copan, Honduras and Xcambo, Yucatan]. Estudios de Antropología Biológica 12, 635–59.Google Scholar
Tiesler, V., 2014. The Bioarchaeology of Artificial Cranial Modifications: New approaches to head shaping and its meanings in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica and beyond. New York (NY): Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tiesler, V., Cucina, A. & Ramírez-Salomón, M., 2017. Permanent dental modifications among the ancient Maya: procedures, health risks, and social identities, in A World View of Bioculturally Modified Teeth, eds Burnett, S.E. & Irish, J.D.. Gainesville (FL): University Press of Florida, 270–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tiesler, V. & Lacadena, A., 2018. Head shapes and group identity on the fringes of the Maya lowlands, in Social Skins of the Head: Body beliefs and ritual in ancient Mesoamerica and the Andes, eds Tiesler, V. & Lozada, M.C.. Albuquerque (NM): University of New Mexico Press, 37–58.Google Scholar
Tozzer, A.M., 1941. Notes, in Landa's Relaciones de las Cosas de Yucatán, by de Landa, D.. (Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology 18.) Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Turner, T., 2012. The social skin. HAU: Journal of Ethnographic Theory 2(2), 486–504.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vail, G. & Stone, A., 2002. Representations of women in Postclassic and Colonial Maya literature and art, in Ancient Maya Women, ed. Ardren, T.. Walnut Creek (CA): AltaMira, 203–28.Google Scholar
White, C.L. & Beaudry, M.C., 2009. Artifacts and personal identity, in The International Handbook of Historical Archaeology, eds Majewski, T. & Gaimster, D.. New York (NY): Springer, 209–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, J.S. & White, C.D., 2006. Dental modification in the Postclassic population from Lamanai, Belize. Ancient Mesoamerica 17(1), 139–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yaeger, J. & Canuto, M.A., 2000. Introducing an archaeology of communities, in Archaeology of Communities: A new world perspective, eds Canuto, M. & Yaeger, J.. London/New York (NY): Routledge, 1–15.Google Scholar