Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rcrh6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-29T08:54:22.324Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

How Religious were the Ancient Egyptians?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 December 2008

Barry J. Kemp
Barry J. Kemp
Affiliation:
Faculty of Oriental StudiesUniversity of CambridgeSidgwick Avenue Cambridge CB3 9DA
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

Ancient Egyptian culture was permeated by statements, symbolic and direct, which defined a world of deities and divine power. They amounted to a form of knowledge that was largely divorced from general personal behaviour and which afforded little recognition of individual experience. Furthermore, although practical provision for survival after death was important, life seems not to have offered a quest for enlightenment through enhanced knowledge of the divine. The exemplary life was a career pursued in what was basically a secular society. Our use of the term ‘religion’ for ancient Egypt, whilst justifiable as a convenience, clearly covers a relationship between belief and behaviour which is distinctive for its place and time. In this article, several kinds of evidence for religious behaviour in ancient Egypt are examined in an attempt to assess the nature and strength of the commitment that they represent. The question of whether the populace at large lived by reference to a world of superstitious gesture which has left little evidence behind is only briefly touched upon.

Type
Articles
Information
Cambridge Archaeological Journal , Volume 5 , Issue 1 , April 1995 , pp. 25 - 54
Copyright
Copyright © The McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research 1995

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adam, S., 1959. Report on the excavations of the Department of Antiquities at Ezbet Rushdi. Annales du Service des Antiquités de l'Egypte 56, 207–26.Google Scholar
Aldred, C., 1969. The ‘New Year’ gifts to the Pharaoh. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 55, 73–81.Google Scholar
Aldred, C., 1979. More light on the Ramesside tomb robberies, in Orbis Aegyptiorum Speculum, Glimpses of Ancient Egypt: Studies in Honour of H.W. Fairman, eds.Ruffle, J.Gaballa, G.A. & Kitchen, K.A.. Warminster: Aris & Phillips, 92–9.Google Scholar
Aleshire, S.B., 1992. The economics of dedication at the Athenian Asklepieion, in Economics of Cult in the Ancient Greek World. Proceedings of the Uppsala Symposium 1990, eds. Linders, T. & Alroth, B.. (Boreas 21.) Uppsala: Uppsala Universitet/Stockholm: Almquist & Wiksell, 85–99.Google Scholar
Alliot, M., 1935. Rapport sur les fouilles de Tell Edfou (1933). (Fouilles de l'lnstitut Français d'Archéologie Orientale, X.2.) Cairo: IFAO.Google Scholar
Alliot, M., 1937–1908. Un nouvel exemple de vizir divinisé dans I'Égypte ancienne. Bulletin de l'lnstitut Français d'Archéologie Orientale 37, 93–160.Google Scholar
Anderson, W., 1992. Badarian burials: evidence of social inequality in Middle Egypt during the early predynastic era. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 29, 51–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arnold, D., 1975. Bemerkungen zu den frühen Tempeln von El–Tod. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Abteilung Kairo 31, 175–86.Google Scholar
Baer, K., 1962. The low price of land in ancient Egypt. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 1, 25–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baines, J., 1987. Practical religion and piety. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 73, 79–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baines, J., 1990. Restricted knowledge, hierarchy, and decorum: modern perceptions and ancient institutions. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 27, 1–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bierbrier, M., 1982. The Tomb–builders of the Pharaohs. London: British Museum.Google Scholar
Bisson de la Roque, F., 1937. Tôd (1934 à 1936). (Fouilles de l'lnstitut Français d'Archéologie Orientale 17.) Cairo: IFAO.Google Scholar
Blackman, A.M., 1937. Preliminary report on the excavations at Sesebi, Northern Province, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 1936–1937. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 23, 145–51.Google Scholar
Bomann, A., 1991. The Private Chapel in Ancient Egypt. London & New York (NY): Kegan Paul Int.Google Scholar
Borchardt, L. & Ricke, H., 1980. Die Wohnhäuser in Tell el-Amarna. (Wissenschaftliche Veröffentlichung der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft, 91.) Berlin: Mann.Google Scholar
Bourriau, J., 1988. Pharaohs and Mortals; Egyptian Art in the Middle Kingdom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press & Fitzwilliam Museum.Google Scholar
Breasted, J.H., 1906. Ancient Records of Egypt, vol. IV. Chicago (IL): University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Breasted, J.H., 1930. The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus. Chicago (IL): Oriental Institute.Google Scholar
Briggs, A., 1963. Victorian Cities. London: Odhams & Harmondsworth: Penguin.Google Scholar
Bruyère, B., 1930. Rapport sur les fouilles de Deir el Médineh (1929). (Fouilles de l'lnstitut Français d'Archéologie Orientale, VII, 2.) Cairo: IFAO.Google Scholar
Bruyère, B., 1937. Rapport sur les fouilles de Deir el-Mèdineh (1934–1935), 2ème partie: La nécropole del'est. (Fouilles de l'lnstitut Français d'Archéologie Orientale 15.) Cairo: IFAO.Google Scholar
Butzer, K.W., 1976. Early Hydraulic Civilization in Egypt. Chicago (IL): Oriental Institute.Google Scholar
Caminos, R.A., 1977. Grabräuberprozess, in Lexikon der Ägyptologie vol. II, ed. Helck, W. & Westendorf, W.. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 862–66.Google Scholar
Cumming, B., 1984. Egyptian Historical Records of the Later Eighteenth Dynasty, fasc II. Warminster: Aris & Phillips.Google Scholar
Darby, W.J., Ghalioungui, P. & Grivetti, L., 1977. Food: The Gift of Osiris. London, New York (NY) & San Francisco (CA): Academic Press.Google Scholar
de G., Davies N., 1927. Two Ramesside Tombs at Thebes. New York (NY): Metropolitan Museum of Art.Google Scholar
de G., Davies N., 1930. The Tomb of Ken-amun at Thebes. New York (NY): Metropolitan Museum of Art.Google Scholar
de G., Davies N., 1933. The Tombs of Menkheperrasonb, Amenmose, and Another. London: Egypt Exploration Society.Google Scholar
Demarée, R.J., 1983. The 3h ikr n R'-stelae; On Ancestor Worship in Ancient Egypt. (Egyptologische Uitgaven 3.) Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten.Google Scholar
Dreyer, G., 1986. Elephantine VIII. Der Tempel der Satet. Die Funde der Frühzeit und des Alten Reiches. (Archäologische Veröffentlichungen 39.) Mainz am Rhein: von Zabern.Google Scholar
Dreyer, G., 1990. Umm el-Qaab. Nachuntersuchungen im frühzeitlichen Königsfriedhof. 3./4. Vorbericht. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Abteilung Kairo 46, 53–90.Google Scholar
Eigner, D., 1992. A temple of the Early Middle Kingdom at Tell Ibrahim Awad, in The Nile Delta in Transition: 4th-3rd millennium BC, ed. Brink, E.C.M. van den. Tel Aviv: van den Brink, 69–78.Google Scholar
El-Sawi, A., 1979. Excavations at Tell Basta. Report of Seasons 1967–1971 and Catalogue of Finds. Prague: Charles University.Google Scholar
Emery, W.B., 1954. Great Tombs of the First Dynasty II. London: Egypt Exploration Society.Google Scholar
Emery, W.B., 1958. Great Tombs of the First Dynasty III. London: Egypt Exploration Society.Google Scholar
Emery, W.B., 1961. Archaic Egypt. Harmondsworth: Penguin.Google Scholar
Emery, W.B. & Saad, Z.Y., 1938. The Tomb of Hemaka. Cairo: Bulaq, Government Press, Service des Antiquités de l'Egypte.Google Scholar
Emery, W.B., Smith, H.S. & Millard, A., 1979. The Fortress of Bnhen; The Archaeological Report. London: Egypt Exploration Society.Google Scholar
Engelbach, R., 1915. Riqqeh and Memphis VI. London: British School of Archaeology in Egypt.Google Scholar
Engelbach, R., 1923. Harageh. London: British School of Archaeology in Egypt.Google Scholar
Engelbach, R. (ed.), 1946. Introduction to Egyptian Archaeology; with special reference to the Egyptian Museum, Cairo. Cairo: IFAO.Google Scholar
Fairman, H.W., 1938. Preliminary report on the excavations at Sesebi (Sudla) and ‘Amārah West, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 1937–1908. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 24, 151–6.Google Scholar
Fairman, H.W., 1948. Preliminary report on the excavations at Amarah West, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 1947–1908. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 34, 3–11.Google Scholar
Fakhry, A., 1961. The Monuments of Sneferu at Dahshur, vol. II. The Valley Temple. 2 parts. Cairo: General Organization for Government Printing Offices.Google Scholar
Firth, C.M., 1927. Excavations of the Service des Antiquités at Saqqara (November 1926-April 1927). Annales du Service des Antiquités de l'Egypte 27, 105–11.Google Scholar
Firth, C.M. & Quibell, J.E., 1935. The Step Pyramid. Cairo: IFAO.Google Scholar
Fischer, H.G., 1977. Gaufürst, in Lexikon der Ägyptologie, vol. II, eds. Helck, W. & Westendorf, W.. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 408–17.Google Scholar
Fischer, H.G., 1982. Priesterin, in Lexikon der Ägyptologie, vol. IV, eds. Helck, W. & Westendorf, W.. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1100–105.Google Scholar
Franke, D., 1991. The career of Khnumhotep III of Beni Hasan and the so-called ‘decline of the nomarchs‘, in Middle Kingdom Studies, ed. Quirke, S.. New Maiden: SIA Publishing, 51–67.Google Scholar
Frankfort, H., 1927. Preliminary report on the excavations at Tell el-'Amarnah, 1926–7. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 13, 209–18.Google Scholar
Friedman, F.D., 1994. Aspects of domestic life and religion, in Pharaoh's Workers; The Villagers of Deir el Medina, ed. Lesko, L.H.. Ithaca (NY) & London: Cornell University Press, 95–117.Google Scholar
Gardiner, A.H., 1935. Hieratic Papyri in the British Museum, Third series, Chester Beatty Gift. London: British Museum.Google Scholar
Gardiner, A.H., 1938. The Mansion of Life and the Master of the King's Largess. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 24, 83–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gardiner, A.H., 1948. The Wilbour Papyrus, vol. II. Commentary. Brooklyn (NY): Brooklyn Museum; Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Gardiner, A.H. & Sethe, K., 1928. Egyptian Letters to the Dead: Mainly from the Old and Middle Kingdoms, London: Oxford University Press for the Egypt Exploration Society.Google Scholar
Giddy, L.L., 1987. Egyptian Oases. Bahariya, Dakhla, Farafra and Kharga during Pharaonic Times. Warminster: Aris & Phillips.Google Scholar
Ginzburg, C., 1989. The Cheese and the Worms; The Cosmos of a Sixteenth-century Miller. English translation by Tedeschi, J. & A.. New York (NY): Dorset Press.Google Scholar
Goedicke, H., 1989. The Pepi II decree from Dakhleh. Bulletin de I'Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientate 89, 203–12.Google Scholar
Goldstein, L., 1981. One-dimensional archaeology and multidimensional people: spatial organisation and mortuary analysis, in The Archaeology of Death, eds. Chapman, R.W., Kinnes, I. & Randsborg, K.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 53–69.Google Scholar
Griffith, F.LI, 1921. Oxford excavations in Nubia. Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology (Liverpool) 8, 65–104.Google Scholar
Habachi, L., 1957. Tell Basta. (Supplément aux Annales du Service des Antiquités de l'Egypte 22.) Cairo: IFAO.Google Scholar
Habachi, L., 1985. Elephantine IV. The Sanctuary of Heqaib. (Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Abteilung Kairo, Archäologische Veröffentlichungen 33.) Mainz am Rhein: von Zabern.Google Scholar
Hayes, W.C., 1955. A Papyrus of the Late Middle Kingdom in the Brooklyn Museum [Papyrus Brooklyn 35.1446]. Brooklyn (NY): The Brooklyn Museum.Google Scholar
Helck, W., 1961–1905. Materialien zur Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Neuen Reiches. Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur, Abhandlungen der Geistes- und Sozial-wissenschaftlichen Klasse 1960, Nr. 10, Nr. 11; 1963, Nr. 2, Nr. 3; 1964, Nr. 4. Wiesbaden: Steiner.Google Scholar
Helck, W., 1982. Opferstiftung, in Lexikon der Ägyptologie, Band IV, eds. Helck, W. & Westendorf, W.. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 590–4.Google Scholar
Hölscher, U., 1939. The Temples of the Eighteenth Dynasty. The excavation of Medinet Habu II. Chicago (IL): University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Ikram, S., 1989. Domestic shrines and the cult of the royal family at el-'Amarna. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 75, 89–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Janssen, J.J., 1975. Commodity Prices from the Ramessid Period: An Economic Study of the Village of Necropolis Workmen at Thebes. Leiden: Brill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Janssen, J.J., 1991. Late Ramesside Letters and Communications. (Hieratic papyri in the British Museum VI.) London, British Museum Press.Google Scholar
Jaritz, H., 1992. Der Totentempel des Merenptah in Qurna. 1. Grabungsbericht (1.-6. Kampagne). Mitteilungen des Deutschen Arcluiologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo 48, 65–91.Google Scholar
Jéquier, G., 1922. Les temples ramessides et saïtes, de la XIXe à la XXXe dynastie. Paris: Editions Albert Morancé.Google Scholar
Kagan, R.L., 1990. Lucrecia's Dreams; Politics and Prophecy in Sixteenth-century Spain. Berkeley (CA) & Oxford: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaiser, W., Andraschko, F., Aston, D.A., Jaritz, H., Krekeler, A., Nebe, I., Niederberger, W., Pigur, M. & Pilgrim, C. von, 1990. Stadt und Tempel von Elephantine. 17./18. Grabungsbericht. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäolo-gischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo 46, 185–249.Google Scholar
Kaiser, W., Bommas, M., Jaritz, H., Krekeler, A., Pilgrim, C. von, Schultz, M., Schmidt-Schultz, T. & Ziermann, M., 1993. Stadt und Tempel von Elephantine. 19./20. Grabungsbericht. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo 49, 133–87.Google Scholar
Kaplony, H., 1980. Ka-Haus, in Lexikon der Ägyptologie, eds. Helck, W. & Westendorf, W.. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, III, 284–7.Google Scholar
Kaplony-Heckel, U. 1971. Ägyptische Handschriften, pt. 1, ed. E. Lüddeckens. Verzeichnis der Orientalischen Handschriften in Deutschland 19., ed. Voigt, W.. Wiesbaden.Google Scholar
Kees, H., 1961. Ancient Egypt, A Cultural Topography. London: Faber & Faber.Google Scholar
Kemp, B.J., 1972a. Temple and town in ancient Egypt, in Man, Settlement and Urbanism, eds. Ucko, P.J., Tringham, R. & Dimbleby, G.W.. London: Duckworth, 657–80.Google Scholar
Kemp, B.J., 1972b. Fortified towns in Nubia, in Man, Settlement and Urbanism, eds. Ucko, P.J., Tringham, R. & Dimbleby, G.W.. London: Duckworth, 651–6.Google Scholar
Kemp, B.J., 1978. The harim-palace at Medinet el-Ghurab. Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 105, 122–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kemp, B.J., 1981. Preliminary report on the el-'Amarna expedition, 1980. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 67, 5–20.Google Scholar
Kemp, B.J., 1987. The Amarna Workmen's Village in retrospect. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 73, 21–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kemp, B.J., 1989. Ancient Egypt; Anatomy of a Civilization. London & New York (NY): Routledge.Google Scholar
Kemp, B.J., 1994. Food for an Egyptian city, in Whither Environmental Archaeology?, eds. Luff, R. & Rowley-Conwy, P.. Oxford: Oxbow Press, 133–53.Google Scholar
Kemp, B.J. & Merrillees, R.S., 1980. Minoan Pottery in Second Millennium Egypt. Mainz am Rhein: von Zabern.Google Scholar
Kemp, B.J. & O'Connor, D., 1974. An ancient Nile harbour; University Museum excavations at the ‘Birket Habu’. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology and Underwater Exploration 3, 101–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kitchen, K.A., 1992. The vintages of the Ramesseum, in Studies in Pharaonic Religion and Society in Honour of J. Gwyn Griffiths, ed. Lloyd, A.B.. (Occasional Publications 8.) London: Egypt Exploration Society, 115–23.Google Scholar
Lacovara, P., 1990. Deir el-Ballas; Preliminary Report on the Deir el-Ballas Expedition, 1980–1986. (American Research Center in Egypt Reports 12.) Winona Lake (IN): Eisenbrauns for the American Research Center in Egypt.Google Scholar
Leahy, M.A., 1989. A protective measure at Abydos in the Thirteenth Dynasty. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 75, 41–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leemans, C., 1867. Aegyptische Monumenten van het Nederlandsche Museum van Oudheden te Leyden. Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar
Lehner, M., 1985. The Pyramid Tomb of Hetep-heres and the Satellite Pyramid of Khufu. (Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Abteilung Kairo, Sonderschrift 19.) Mainz am Rhein: von Zabern.Google Scholar
Leprohon, R.J., 1988. Cultic activities in the temples at Amarna, in The Akhenaten Temple Project 2, ed. Redford, D.B.. Toronto: Toronto University Press, 47–51.Google Scholar
Le Roy Ladurie, E., 1980. Montaillou; Cathars and Catholics in a French Village 1294–1324. English translation by Bray, B.. Harmondsworth: Penguin.Google Scholar
Lichtheim, M., 1988. Ancient Egyptian Autobiographies Chiefly of the Middle Kingdom; A Study and an Anthology. (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis 84.) Freiburg, Schweiz: Univer-sitätsverlag & Göttingen, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.Google Scholar
Loat, L., 1905. Gurob, in Saqqara Mastabas, part I, and Gurob, by Murray, M.A. & Loat, L.. London: Quaritch.Google Scholar
Lyons, H., 1916. The temple at Mirgisse. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 3, 182–3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mace, A.C. & Winlock, H.E., 1916. The tomb of Senebtisi at Lisht. New York (NY): Metropolitan Museum of Art.Google Scholar
Morkot, R.G., 1990. Nb-m3't-R'-United-with-Ptah. Journal of Near Eastern Studies 49, 323–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morris, I., 1991. The archaeology of ancestors: the Saxe/Goldstein hypothesis revisited. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 1(2), 147–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Munro, P., 1962. Einige Votivstelen an Wp w3wt. Zeitschrift für Ägyptischen Sprache und Altertumskunde 88, 48–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Naumann, R., 1939. Der Tempel des Mittleren Reiches in Medinet Madi. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Instituts für Ägyptische Altertumskunde in Kairo 8, 185–9.Google Scholar
Nelson, H.H., 1934. The calendar of feasts and offerings at Medinet Habu, in Work in Western Thebes 1931–33, eds. Nelson, H.H. & Hölscher, U.. (Oriental Institute Communications 18.) Chicago (IL): University of Chicago Press, 1–90.Google Scholar
Newberry, P.E., 1895. El Bersheh I (The Tomb of Tehuti-hetep). London: Egypt Exploration Fund.Google Scholar
O'Connor, D.B., 1967. Abydos. A preliminary report of the Pennsylvania-Yale Expedition, 1967. Expedition 10(1), 10–23.Google Scholar
O'Connor, D.B., 1969. Abydos and the University Museum: 1898–1969. Expedition 12(1), 28–39.Google Scholar
O'Connor, D.B., 1985. The ‘cenotaphs’ of the Middle Kingdom at Abydos, in Mélanges Gamal Eddin Mokhtar, vol. II. (Bibliothèque d'Etude 97/2.) Cairo: IFAO, 161–77.Google Scholar
O'Connor, D.B., 1992. The status of early Egyptian temples: an alternative theory, in The Followers of Horus; Studies Dedicated to Michael Allen Hoffman 1944–1990, eds. Friedman, R. & Adams, B.. Oxford: Oxbow 83–98.Google Scholar
Parkinson, R.B., 1991. Voices from Ancient Egypt; An Anthology of Middle Kingdom Writings. London: British Museum.Google Scholar
Peet, T.E., 1924. A historical document of Ramesside age. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 10, 116–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peet, T.E., 1930. The Great Tomb-robberies of the Twentieth Egyptian Dynasty. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Peet, T.E. & Woolley, C.L., 1923. The City of Akhenaten I. London: Egypt Exploration Society.Google Scholar
Pendelbury, J.D.S., 1951. The City of Akhenaten III. London: Egypt Exploration Society.Google Scholar
Petrie, W.M.F., 1892. Medum. London: Nutt.Google Scholar
Petrie, W.M.F., 1896. Koptos. London: Quaritch.Google Scholar
Petrie, W.M.F., 1900. Dendereh (1898). London: Egypt Exploration Fund.Google Scholar
Petrie, W.M.F., 1903. Abydos, Part II. London: Egypt Exploration Fund.Google Scholar
Petrie, W.M.F., 1914. Tarkhan II. London: British School of Archaeology in Egypt.Google Scholar
Petrie, W.M.F., & Quibell, J.E., 1896. Naqada and Ballas. London: Quaritch.Google Scholar
Pinch, G., 1983. Childbirth and female figurines at Deir el-Medina and el-'Amarna. Orientalia 52, 405–14.Google Scholar
Pinch, G., 1993. Votive Offerings to Hathor. Oxford: Griffith Institute.Google Scholar
Porter, B. & Moss, R.L.B., 1951. Topographical Bibliography of Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphic Texts, Reliefs, and Paintings, VII. Nubia, the Deserts, and Outside Egypt. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Porter, B. & Moss, R.L.B., 1964. Topographical Bibliography of Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphic Texts, Reliefs, and Paintings. 2nd ed., vol. I. The Theban Necropolis, part 2. Royal Tombs and Smaller Cemeteries. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Quibell, J.E. & Green, F.W., 1902. Hierakonpolis, Part II. London: Quaritch.Google Scholar
Randall-Maciver, D. & Woolley, C.L., 1911. Buhen. (Eckley B. Coxe Junior Expedition to Nubia VII, VIII.) Philadelphia (PA): University Museum.Google Scholar
Reeves, N., 1990. The Complete Tutankhamun. London: Thames & Hudson.Google Scholar
Reisner, G.A., 1918. The tomb of Hepzefa, nomarch of Siût. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 5, 79–98.Google Scholar
Reisner, G.A. & Smith, W.S., 1955. A History of the Giza Necropolis, II. The Tomb of Hetep-heres the Mother of Cheops. Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Ricke, H., 1981. Untersuchungen im Totentempel Amenophis' III. (Beiträge zur Ägyptischen Bauforschung und Altertumskunde 11.) Wiesbaden: Steiner.Google Scholar
Ritner, R.K., 1990. O. Gardiner 363: a spell against night terrors. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 27, 25–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robichon, C. & Varille, A., 1936. Le temple du scribe royal Amenhotep fils de Hapou, I. Cairo: IFAO.Google Scholar
Rosellini, N.F.I.B., 1844. Monumenti dell' Egitto e delta Nubia. Parte III. Monumenti del culto. Pisa: Capurro.Google Scholar
Roth, A.M., 1993. Social change in the Fourth Dynasty: the spatial organization of pyramids, tombs, and cemeteries. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 30, 33–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sadek, A.I., 1987. Popular Religion in Egypt during the New Kingdom. (Hildesheimer Ägyptologische Beiträge 27.) Hildesheim: GerstenbergGoogle Scholar
Säve-Söderbergh, T., 1957. Four Eighteenth Dynasty Tombs. Private Tombs at Thebes, vol. I. Oxford: Griffith Institute.Google Scholar
Schaedel, H.D., 1936. Die Listen des grossen Papyrus Harris. (Leipziger Ägyptologische Studien 6.) Glückstadt, Hamburg & New York (NY): Augustin.Google Scholar
Schäfer, H., 1902. Ein Bruchstiick altägyptischer Annalen. Berlin: Königl. Akademie der Wissenschaften.Google Scholar
Schulman, A.R., 1965. The Berlin ‘Trauerrelief’ (No. 12411) and some officials of Tut'ankhamun and Ay. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 4, 55–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schulman, A.R., 1982. The battle scenes of the Middle Kingdom. Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities 12, 165–83.Google Scholar
Seidlmayer, S., 1983. Zu einigen Architekturinschriften aus Tell el-Amarna. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo 39, 183–206.Google Scholar
Shinnie, P.L., 1951. Preliminary report on the excavations at 'Amārah West, 1948–1949 and 1949–1950. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 37, 5–11.Google Scholar
Smith, H.S., 1976. The Fortress of Buhen; The Inscriptions. London: Egypt Exploration Society.Google Scholar
Smith, S.T., 1992. Intact tombs of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Dynasties from Thebes and the New Kingdom burial system. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo 48, 193–231.Google Scholar
Smith, W.S., 1981. The Art and Architecture of Ancient Egypt, revised with additions by W.K. Simpson. Harmonds-worth: Penguin.Google Scholar
Soukiassian, G., Wuttmann, M. & Schaad, D., 1990. La ville d”Ayn-Asil à Dakhla. Etat des recherches. Bulletin de I'Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale du Caire 90, 347–58.Google Scholar
Spalinger, A.J., 1985. A redistributive pattern at Assiut. Journal of the American Oriental Society 105, 7–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spalinger, A.J., 1991. Some revisions of temple endowments in the New Kingdom. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 28, 21–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steckeweh, H., 1936. Die Fürstengräber von Qâw. Leipzig: Hinrich.Google Scholar
Taylor, J.H., 1992. Aspects of the history of the Valley of the Kings in the Third Intermediate Period, in After Tut'ankhamun; Research and Excavation in the Royal Necropolis at Thebes, ed. Reeves, C.N.. New York (NY) & London: Kegan Paul International, 186–206.Google Scholar
Thomas, E., 1966. The Royal Necropoleis of Thebes. Princeton (NJ): Privately pub.Google Scholar
Trigger, B.G., Kemp, B.J., O'Connor, D. & Lloyd, A.B., 1983. Ancient Egypt; A Social History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Valloggia, M., 1986. Balat I. Le mastaba de Medou-nefer. (Fouilles de I'Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale 31.) Cairo: IFAO.Google Scholar
Vercoutter, J., 1964. La stèle de Mirgissa IM.209 et la localisation d'lken (Kor ou Mirgissa?). Revue d'Egyptologie 16, 179–91.Google Scholar
Vercoutter, J., 1970. Mirgissa I. Paris: Mission archéologique française au Soudan.Google Scholar
Wildung, D., 1969. Die Rolle ägyptischer Könige im Bewusstsein ihrer Nachwelt, I. (Münchener Ägyptologische Studien 17.) Berlin: Hessling.Google Scholar