Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-g8jcs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-29T02:03:18.910Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Lives in exile: foreign political refugees in early independent Greece (1830–53)

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 September 2019

Christos Aliprantis
Christos Aliprantis*
Affiliation:
University of [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article discusses the stay in Greece of Italian and Polish political refugees of the 1830–1 and 1848–9 European revolutions. The article depicts the human geography of the refugees and examines the experience of exile both collectively and individually. Apart from studying the émigré communities as a whole in Athens, Patras and Syros, this paper also analyses the problems and expectations of specific refugees in Greece after 1849 (e.g. Antonio Morandi, Marco Antonio Canini, Oronzio Spinazzolla). This contribution thus adds to our understanding of both Greece under King Otto and the Mediterranean by highlighting aspects of transnational mobility and interaction of peoples and ideas in the mid-nineteenth century.

Keywords

revolutions of 1830–1 and 1848–9Modern GreeceItalian and Polish political refugees
Type
Articles
Information
Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies , Volume 43 , Issue 2 , October 2019 , pp. 243 - 261
Copyright
Copyright © Centre for Byzantine, Ottoman and Modern Greek Studies, University of Birmingham, 2019 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

I would like to thank Panagiotis Delis, Basil Gounaris, Kostas Kostis, Maria Christina Chatziioannou, Evanthis Hatzivassileiou, Miltos Pechlivanos and Jacek Knopek for the constructive discussions and feedback on earlier versions of this paper. Researching and writing were funded by the Alexander Onassis Foundation, the A. G. Leventis Foundation, the Foundation for Education and European Culture, the DAAD, and the Richard Plaschka Grant of the Austrian Exchange Service (OeAD).

References

2 Isabella, M., Risorgimento in Exile: Italian Émigrés and the Liberal International in the Post-Napoleonic Era (Oxford 2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Pizanias, P. (ed.), Η ελληνική επανάσταση του 1821: Ένα ευρωπαϊκό γεγονός (Athens 2009)Google Scholar; Stites, R., The Four Horsemen. Riding to Liberty in Post-Napoleonic Europe (Oxford 2014)Google Scholar; Stedman Jones, G. and Moggach, D. (eds), The 1848 Revolutions and European Political Thought (Cambridge 2018)Google Scholar. See also the forthcoming monographs by Maurizio Isabella about the southern European revolutions of the 1820s, and by Yannis Kotsonis on the Greek revolution of 1821.

3 Liakos, A., Η ιταλική ενοποίηση και η μεγάλη ιδέα, 1859–1862 (Athens 1985);Google Scholar Khuri-Makdisi, I., The Eastern Mediterranean and the Making of Global Radicalism, 1860–1914 (Berkeley 2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Noto, A. G., La ricezione del Risorgimento greco in Italia (1770–1844) (Rome 2015)Google Scholar; Karakatsouli, A., ‘Μαχητές της Ελευθερίας’: Η ελληνική επανάσταση στη διεθνική της διάσταση (Athens 2016)Google Scholar; Zanou, K. and Isabella, M. (eds), Mediterranean Diasporas: Politics and Ideas in the Long Nineteenth Century (London 2016)Google Scholar; Zanou, K., Transnational Patriotism in the Mediterranean, 1800–1850: Stammering the Nation (Oxford 2018)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Innes, J. and Philp, M. (eds), Re-Imagining Democracy in the Mediterranean, 1780–1860 (Oxford 2018);CrossRefGoogle Scholar Tucker, J. (ed.), The Making of the Modern Mediterranean: Views from the South (Berkeley 2019)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

4 On this opinion, Isabella, M., ‘Exile and nationalism: the case of the Risorgimento’, European History Quarterly 36/4 (2006) 493–520CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

5 Reill, D., Nationalists who Feared the Nation: Adriatic Multi-Nationalism in Habsburg Dalmatia, Trieste, and Venice (Stanford 2012)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

6 Suonpää, M. and Wright, O. (eds), Diplomacy and Intelligence in the Nineteenth-Century Mediterranean World (London 2019)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 Toth, H., An Exiled Generation: German and Hungarian Refugees of Revolution 1848–1871 (Cambridge 2014)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

8 Sarlin, S., Le légitimisme en armes: histoire d'une mobilisation internationale contre l'unité italienne (Rome 2013)Google Scholar; Di Fiore, L., Gli Invisibili: Polizia politica e agenti segreti nell'Ottocento borbonico (Naples 2018)Google Scholar.

9 Above all Aliprantis, C., ‘Political refugees of the 1848–49 revolutions in the Kingdom of Greece’, Journal of Modern Greek Studies 37/1 (2019) 1–33CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Also Birtachas, S., ‘Solidarietà e scambi ideologico-culturali italo-ellenici in epoca risorgimentale: L'emigrazione politica italiana nelle Isole Ionie e in Grecia’, Mediterranea. Ricerche storiche 26 (2012) 461–74Google Scholar.

10 Lattek, C., Revolutionary Refugees: German Socialism in Britain, 1840–1860 (London 2004)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Toth, H., ‘The historians’ scales: families in exile in the aftermath of the revolutions of 1848’, Hungarian Historical Review 1/3.4 (2012) 294–315Google Scholar. Sarah Panter's research project ‘Rooted cosmopolitans and transatlantic mobilities: revolutionary lives after 1848/49’ at the Leibniz Institute of European History is also relevant.

11 St Clair, W., That Greece Might Still Be Free: The Philhellenes in the War of Independence (Oxford 1972)Google Scholar; Mandylara, A. and Flitouris, L. (eds), Φιλελληνισμός: Το ενδιαφέρον για την Ελλάδα και τους Έλληνες από το 1821 ως σήμερα (Athens 2015)Google Scholar.

12 Karakatsouli, Μαχητές της Ελευθερίας, passim; Birtachas, ‘L'emigrazione politica italiana’, 462–3; Sinko, T., ‘Udział Polaków w bojach i pracach Hellady’, Przegl ąd Współczesny 42 (1932) 277–300Google Scholar; Strasburger, J., ‘Le philhellénisme en Pologne aux années de l'insurrection Grecque 1821–1828’, Balkan Studies 12 (1971) 103–16Google Scholar; Loukatos, S. (ed.), Ο ιταλικός φιλελληνισμός κατά τον αγώνα της ελληνικής ανεξαρτησίας, 1821–1833 (Athens 1996)Google Scholar; Klein, N., ‘L'humanité, le christianisme, et la liberté’: Die internationale philhellenische Bewegung der 1820er Jahre (Mainz 2000)Google Scholar.

13 Church, C., Europe in 1830: Revolution and Political Change (London 1983)Google Scholar; Aprile, S., Caron, J. C. and Fureix, E. (eds), La liberté guidant les peoples: Les révolutions de 1830 en Europe (Seyssel 2013)Google Scholar.

14 Birtachas, ‘L'emigrazione politica italiana’, 464–6; M. C. Chatziioannou, ‘Οι Ιταλοί πρόσφυγες στα Ιόνια νησιά: Διαμορφωμένες πραγματικότητες και προοπτικές ενσωμάτωσης’, in Πρακτικά Στ΄ Διεθνούς Πανιόνιου Συνεδρίου (Athens 2001) 495–510, esp. 497–9; Liakos, A., ‘Η διάθλαση των επαναστατικών ιδεών στον ελληνικό χώρο, 1830–1850’, Τα Ιστορικά 1 (1983) 121–44Google Scholar.

15 Meluso, S., La spedizione in Calabria dei Fratelli Bandiera (Soveria Mannelli 2001)Google Scholar.

16 The Philorthodox Society was of course conservatively oriented. Frary, L., Russia and the Making of Modern Greek Identity, 1821–1844 (Oxford 2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar ch. 6.

17 Della Peruta, F., Mazzini e i rivoluzionari italiani. Il ‘partito d'azione’, 1830–45 (Milan 1974)Google Scholar; Bayly, C. A. and Biagini, E. (eds), Giuseppe Mazzini and the Globalization of Democratic Nationalism, 1830–1920 (Oxford 2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

18 Γενικά Αρχεία του Κράτους (ΓΑΚ), Ανακτορικά Όθωνα (ΑνΟ), file 404: Αστυνομία Ξένων, Athens, 26 June/2 July 1835; Nider-Kouvara, T., ‘Το ταξίδι του Emilio Usiglio στην Ελλάδα και το μήνυμα της “Ευρώπης των Λαών”’, in Η Επανάσταση του 1821: Μελέτες στη μνήμη της Δέσποινας Θέμελη-Κατηφόρη (Athens 1994) 173–201Google Scholar.

19 Zdrada, J., Wielka Emigracja po Powstaniu Listopadowym (Warsaw 1987)Google Scholar; Kalembka, S., Wielka Emigracja 1831–1863 (Toruń 2003)Google Scholar.

20 Kramer, L., Threshold of a New World: Intellectuals and the Exile Experience in Paris, 1830–1848 (Ithaca 1988)Google Scholar; Iwańska, M., ‘Paryż w oczach polskich uchodźców u progu wielkiej emigracji’, Acta Universitatis Lobziensis 63 (1998) 5–22Google Scholar. On Greco-Polish relations in general, Knopek, J., Polacy w Grecji. Historia i współczesność (Bydgoszcz 1997)Google Scholar.

21 Knopek, J., ‘Polscy podróznicy w Grecji w XVIII i na początku XIX wieku’, Studia Polonijne 25 (2004) 59–74Google Scholar.

22 Pachonski, J., ‘Polacy na Wyspach Jonskich i niedoszła Rzeczpospolita Polsko-Grecka (1795–1807)’, Zeszyty Naukowe: Prace Historyczne WSP Katowice, 71/1 (1964)Google Scholar; Wasylewski, S., Zycie polskie XIX w. (Krakow 1962) 44Google Scholar.

23 Themeli-Katifori, D., Το γαλλικό ενδιαφέρον για την Ελλάδα στην περίοδο του Καποδίστρια, 1828–31 (Athens 1985) 94–6, 102Google Scholar.

24 Skowronek, J., Sprzymierzency narodów bałkańskich, Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe (Warsaw 1983) 133, 140Google Scholar; Knopek, J., ‘Udział emigrantów polskich w życiu politycznym i ekonomicznym nowoży-tnego państwa greckiego (1821–1918)’, Studia Polonijne 23 (2002) 57–78Google Scholar, esp. 63–4.

25 Ιστορικό και Διπλωματικό Αρχείο Υπουργείου Εξωτερικών (ΑΥΕΞ), file: Πολωνοί πρόσφυγες στην Ελλάδα, 1834; Frary, Russia, 170.

26 Kalembka, S., Liczebnosci rozmieszczenie Wielkiej Emigracji, w: Liczba i rozmieszczenie Polaków w świecie, pod red. W. Wrzesiń skiego (Wrocław 1981)Google Scholar; Knopek, J., ‘Specyfika polskiego wychodźstwa ekonomicznego i wojskowego w Egipcie do początku XX wieku’, Studia Polonijne 21 (2000) 55–74Google Scholar.

27 Mineyko, Z., Z tajgi pod Akropol. Wspomnienia z lat 1848–1866 (Warsaw 1971)Google Scholar 485.

28 Knopek, ‘Emigrantów Polskich’, 69–70, 75–77 n. 68; idem, Polacy w Grecji; Sinko, ‘Udział Polaków’.

29 Petropulos, J., Politics and Statecraft in the Kingdom of Greece, 1833–1843 (Princeton 1968) 162–5CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

30 Ch. Dimakopoulou, ‘Ο σαινσιμονιστής Francois Graillard περί των ελληνικών πραγμάτων (παρατηρήσεις και προτάσεις)’, Δελτίον της Ιστορικής και Εθνολογικής Εταιρείας της Ελλάδος 22 (1979) 307–448; Baloglou, C., ‘Προσπάθειες διαδόσεως των ιδεών του Saint-Simon και πρακτικής των εφαρμογής στον Ελλαδικό χώρο 1825–1837’, Σπουδαί 53/3 (2003) 77–108Google Scholar, esp. 91–3.

31 Emerit, M., ‘Les saint-simoniens en Grece et en Turquie’, Revue des Etudes sud-est européennes, 13/2 (1975) 241–51Google Scholar; Abi-Mershed, O., Apostles of Modernity. Saint-Simonians and the Civilizing Mission in Algeria (Stanford 2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Pilbeam, P., Saint-Simonians in Nineteenth-Century France: From Free Love to Algeria (London 2014)Google Scholar.

32 Vikelas, D., ‘Ο Γουσταύος Έιχταλ εν Ελλάδι’, in Διαλέξεις και αναμνήσεις (Athens 1893) 257–331Google Scholar.

33 Tóth, Exiled Generation, 1–19; Körner, A. (ed.), 1848: A European Revolution? International Ideas and National Memories of 1848 (London 2000)Google Scholar; Sperber, J., The European Revolutions, 1848–1851 (2nd edn, Cambridge 2011)Google Scholar; Osterhammel, J., The Transformation of the World: A Global History of the Nineteenth Century, trans. P. Camiller (Princeton 2014) 543–7Google Scholar.

34 There is a huge literature on the Italian revolutions of 1848–49. See the reference work Spellanzon, C. and Di Nolfo, E. (eds), Storia del risorgimento e dell'unità d'Italia (Milan 1933–65) IV-VIIIGoogle Scholar.

35 Venice, 6 September 1848, ΓΑΚ, ΑνΟ, file 71: ελληνο-βενετικές σχέσεις 1848; Ελπίς, 3 April 1848; 15 May 1849; V. and Bouse, M. (eds), Ανέκδοτες επιστολές της Βασίλισσας Αμαλίας στον πατέρα της, 1836–1853 (Athens 2011) II 513, 515Google Scholar.

36 Austrian ambassador to foreign minister, No. 64, 14 August 1849, Österreichisches Staatsarchiv (ÖS), Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchiv (HHStA), Ministerium des Äußern, A-Akten, Krt. 2: Zl. 508/1849; Gekas, S., Xenocracy: State, Class, and Colonialism in the Ionian Islands 1815–1864 (Oxford and New York 2017)Google Scholar.

37 E. Fusco, Poesie varie (Corfu 1850); idem, Il salmista Suliotta (Athens 1850); Zecchini, P., Lambro Zavella (Milan 1858)Google Scholar; Rossi, L., Una gloria di Grecia antica ed una lancia spezzata in favore di Grecia moderna (Trieste 1872)Google Scholar; Zauli Saianni, T., Μάρκος Βότσαρης, trans. G. Sfikas (Zante 1867)Google Scholar.

38 Zecchini, P., Quadri della Grecia moderna (Florence 1876 [1864])Google Scholar passim.

39 Patras police to prefect of Achaea, No. 245/158, 20 February 1852, ΓΑΚ, Αρχείο υπουργείου Εσωτερικών (AYEΣ), file: refugees 1852. Attached is the list of the 102 applicants for Greek citizenship.

40 Grange, D., L'Italie et la Méditerranée (1896–1911): Les fondements d'une politique étrangère (Rome 1994)Google Scholar I 449–50.

41 Chatziioannou, M. C., ‘Patras: Greeks and foreigners in the port of Patras during the 19th century’, in Drakopoulou, E. and Dimitropoulos, D. (eds), Sailing in the Ionian with History at the Helm (Athens 2015)Google Scholar 17–27, esp. 21.

42 Vournas, T., Η ιστορική και φιλολογική καταγωγή της «Πάπισσας Ιωάννας» του Ροΐδη (Athens 1949)Google Scholar.

43 Zanou, Transnational Patriotism, 207–14; also Reill, Nationalists, 3.

44 Kerofilas, C., La Grecia e l'Italia nel Risorgimento Italiano (Florence 1919) 17–48Google Scholar; Chatziioannou, M. C., ‘La presenza degli Italiani nella Grecia indipendente’, in Risorgimento greco e filellenismo italiano (Rome 1986) 137–43Google Scholar; Aliprantis, ‘Political refugees’, passim.

45 Iliou, P., Ελληνική Βιβλιογραφία, 1800–1863 (Athens 1983)Google Scholar 161–4 for the interior ministry circulars.

46 Austrian ambassador to foreign minister, No. 71, 23 October 1849, ÖS, HHStA, Ministerium des Äußern, Politisches Archiv (PA), XVI. Griechenland, Krt.17.

47 Zecchini, Grecia moderna, 13–14.

48 Bakounakis, N., Πάτρα: Μια ελληνική πρωτεύουσα στον 19ο αιώνα, 1828–1860 (Athens 1988)Google Scholar 53–4.

49 Barlagiannis, T., Η υγειονομική συγκρότηση του ελληνικού κράτους (1833–1845) (Athens 2018)Google Scholar.

50 Examples in Αιών, 29 October 1849; Μίνως, 24 October 1849; Αχαϊκός Κήρυξ, 26 October 1849; interior minister to state prefects, No. 20, 569, 5 October 1849, Αρχείο της Ιστορικής και Εθνολογικής Εταιρείας της Ελλάδας (ΑΙΕΕ); K. Triantafyllou (ed.), Ιστορικόν Λεξικόν των Πατρών, 3rd edn (Patras 1995) I 905; Bouse (eds), E πιστολές της Αμαλίας, II 543–4.

51 Austrian ambassador to foreign minister, No. 47C, 12 November 1850, ÖS, HHStA, Ministerium des Äußern, Informationsbüro, Actes de Haute Police (AHP), Athen 1850: 2. Beilage.

52 ΓΑΚ Κυκλάδων, Δημοτικό Αρχείο Ερμούπολης (ΔΑΕ), Αρχείο Νοσοκομείου Σύρου, ‘Βιβλίον των εισερχομένων και εξερχομένων ασθενών του Νοσοκομείου Ερμουπόλεως από Φεβρουάριο 1844 ως Νοέμβριο 1853’; Αίολος, 8 October 1849.

53 Loukos, C., ‘Επιδημία και κοινωνία: Η χολέρα στην Ερμούπολη της Σύρου (1854)’, Μνήμων 14 (1992) 49–69CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

54 Ginsborg, P., Daniele Manin and the Venetian Revolution of 1848–49 (Cambridge 1979) 355–6Google Scholar.

55 Italians of Athens to interior minister, No. 40, 12 February 1851, ΓΑΚ, ΑΥΕΣ, file: refugees 1851.

56 Knopek, ‘Emigrantów Polskich’, 64–5; idem, ‘Knopek, Polacy W Xix-Wiecznych’, 48; Bouse (eds), Επιστολές της Αμαλίας, ΙΙ 543; W. Mickiewicz, Legion Mickiewicza. Rok 1848 (Krakow 1921) 376–86; S. Kieniewicz, Legion Mickiewicza 1848–1849 (Warsaw 1955) 163.

57 Michel, E., ‘Esuli italiani nelle Isole Ionie, 1849’, Estratto dalla Rassegna storica del Risorgimento 37 (1950) 323–52Google Scholar, esp.328–29, 332. On Milbitz, S. Kieniewicz, ‘Izenszmid-Milbitz Aleksander’, in Polski słownik biograficzny 10 (1960) 197–8.

58 Austrian ambassador to foreign minister, No. 112/9, 3 February 1852; ÖS, HHStA, AHP, Athen 1853, 3. und 4. Beilagen; ΓΑΚ, ΑνΟ, file 71: Μίλβιτς.

59 Roberts, I., Nicholas I and the Russian Intervention in Hungary (London 1991)CrossRefGoogle Scholar 165–205.

60 Bouse (eds), Επιστολές της Αμαλίας, ΙΙ 571; Αθηνά, 5 January 1851.

61 Quoted in Kłoczowski, J., ‘Legia polska we Włoszech w latach 1848–1849 w pamięci jej weterana’, in Losy Polaków w XIX i XX w. Studia ofiarowane prof. Stefanowi Kieniewiczowi w 80-tą rocznicę urodzin (Warsaw 1987) 483–98, 495Google Scholar.

62 Austrian ambassador to foreign minister, No. 1C, 7 January 1851, ÖS, HHStA, AHP, Athen 1851: 1. Beilage concerning an advertisement published by the Poles in which they offered to manufacture medallions depicting the Greek fighters of 1821.

63 The names of the fallen Poles in Greece are listed in Knopek, ‘Emigrantów Polskich’, 65.

64 Austrian ambassador to foreign minister, No. 38, 1 March 1853, ÖS, HHStA, AHP, Athen 1853.

65 Sakellariou, M., ‘Hellenism and 1848’, in Fejtö, F. (ed.), The opening of an era, 1848: an historical symposium (London 1948) 377–93Google Scholar; Vournas, T., ‘Ανέκδοτα διπλωματικά έγγραφα για τα γεγονότα του 1848 στην Ελλάδα’, Τομές 34–35 (March-April 1978) 31–9Google Scholar.

66 In detail Aliprantis, ‘Political refugees’.

67 ΓΑΚ, ΑνΟ, Regentschaft Ihrer Majestät der Königin, 1850/51, 1852.

68 Austrian ambassador to foreign minister, No.1C, 7 January 1851, ÖS, HHStA, AHP, Athen 1851.

69 Bouse (eds), Επιστολές της Αμαλίας, ΙΙ 541, 546–7.

70 Ibid. 560–1; Austrian ambassador to foreign minister, No. 48, 22 March 1853, ÖS, HHStA, AHP, Athen 1853, 1. Beilage.

71 British ambassador to foreign secretary, 30 October 1849, The National Archives (TNA), Foreign Office (FO), 32/170; Αιών, 22 December 1849; Bouse (eds), Επιστολές της Αμαλίας, ΙΙ 549.

72 British ambassador to foreign secretary, 8 November 1849, TNA, FO, 195/335.

73 Russian delegate to Greek foreign minister, No. 3700, 3880, 8, 25 July 1850, ΑΥΕΞ, file: refugees 1850.

74 Αρχείο Σύγχρονης Κοινωνικής Ιστορίας (ΑΣΚΙ), Αρχείο οικογένειας Κριεζή, file 1; Austrian ambassador to foreign minister, No. 4C, No. 6a, 22, 29 January 1850, ÖS, HHStA, AHP, Athen 1850; interior minister to state prefects, No. 790, 15,565, 21 January, 4 September 1850, AIEE.

75 Austrian ambassador to foreign minister, No.11.13, 5 March 1850, ÖS, HHStA, PA, XVI. 17; idem, No. 22, 24 June 1851, AHP, Athen 1851.

76 Idem, No. 64, 14 August 1849, ÖS, HHStA, A-Akten, Zl. 508/1849; idem, No. 47C, 12 November 1850; No. 112/9, 3 February 1852, ÖS, HHStA, AHP, Athen 1850, 1852.

77 Copy: Athens police to interior minister, No. 2270/2559, 439/302, 2660, 1255, 18, 19, 26, 28 April 1850, ΑΥΕΞ, file: refugees 1850.

78 Canini to Tommaseo, 9 September 1849, Bibliotheca Nazionale di Firenze (BNF), Fondo Tommaseo (FT), cassetta 186; Canini, M. A., Vingt ans d'exil (Paris 1868)Google Scholar 76–7; Guida, F., L'Italia e il Risorgimento balcanico: Marco Antonio Canini (Rome 1984)Google Scholar 59–78.

79 Canini to Tommaseo, 9 September 1849, BNF, FT, 186; Αιών, 4, 14 September 1849; Austrian ambassador to foreign minister, Νο.72.Α-Β, 30 October 1849, No. 9C, 19 February 1850, ÖS, HHStA, PA, XVI. 17; idem, No. 85, 20 May 1853, ÖS, HHStA, AHP, Athen 1853.

80 Idem, Νο.70Α93, 9 October 1849, ÖS, HHStA, PA, XVI. 17; Canini, Vingt ans 77.

81 Canini to Tommaseo, 30 October, 15 December 1849, BNF, FT, 186.

82 Αιών, 4 September 1849; A. Bistarelli, Gli esuli del Risorgimento (Bologna 2011) 224–5.

83 Austrian ambassador to foreign minister, No. 69, 71, 1, 9 April 1853: Beilagen: Wochenberiche, 25.-31. März, 1.-8. April 1853, ÖS, HHStA, AHP, Athen 1853; Archives de l’État en Belgique, Ministère de la Justice. Administration de la Sûreté publique. Service de la Police des Etrangers. Dossiers généraux: III. Police des étrangers réfugiés politiques. 246 Démocrates italiens et hongrois réfugiés en Grèce et dont les passeports avaient été visés par le consul belge à Athènes à l'effet de se rendre en Belgique, 1849.

84 Austrian ambassador to foreign minister, Νο.49.Α-C., 3 December 1850, ÖS, HHStA, PA, XVI. 17; idem, No. 50B, 10 December 1850, AHP, Athen 1850; idem, No. 1C, 100/9, 7, 21 January 1851, AHP, Athen 1851.

85 Athens police to interior minister, No.40, 12 February 1851, ΓΑΚ, ΑΥΕΣ, file: refugees 1851; Αθηνά, 5 January 1851.

86 Liakos, Ιταλική ενοποίηση 55–6; Jianu, A., A Circle of Friends: Romanian Revolutionaries and Political Exile, 1840–1859 (Leiden and Boston 2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. The CEDC was a London-based association founded by Mazzini and other revolutionaries in 1850 to advance international political collaboration among the exiles, but it soon became paralysed by disagreements among its founding members.

87 ÖS, HHStA, IB, Vorträge in Polizeisachen (1831–1835) 1-1-8 Vortrag des Staatskanzlers über die Flucht des modenesischen Insurgenten Morandi aus dem Gefängnis in Venedig und die diesbezügliche Unterstützung des französischen Konsulatsverwesers Alfred Mimaut (19.12.1831).

88 ΓΑΚ, ΑνΟ, Προσωπικές υποθέσεις, Μ8: μοίραρχος Μοράντης (Morandi); St Clair, That Greece Might Still Be Free, 257, 267.

89 Αιών, 10 September 1849; Austrian ambassador to foreign minister, No. 71, 23 October 1849, ÖS, HHStA, PA, XVI. 17.

90 Idem, No. 34, 28A, 6 August, 3 September 1850, ÖS, HHStA, PA, XVI. 17; A. Morandi, Il mio giornale dal 1848 al 1850 (Modena 1867).

91 Austrian ambassador to foreign minister, No. 18/8, No. 37, 48/4, 18, 25 March, 1 April 1853, ÖS, HHStA, AHP, 1853: Beilagen: Wochenberichten, 10.-17., 17.-24., 25.-31. März 1853.

92 ÖS, HHStA, Gesandtschaftsarchiv Rom Vatikan III, 78a-18 M28: Morandi-Zanotti, Majestätsgesuch um Begnadigung (1863).

93 Austrian ambassador to foreign minister, No. 112/9, N.5A-B, 3, 17 February 1852, ÖS, HHStA, AHP, Athen 1852; Πρακτικά των Συνεδριάσεων της Βουλής, Συνεδρίαση ΞΖ ’ 10 Ιουνίου 1855 (Athens 1855) 417.

94 Kordatos, G., Μεγάλη ιστορία της Ελλάδας (Athens 1958) XI 577–9Google Scholar; Sfyroeras, V., ‘Η “Αδελφότης των Ευαγγελιζομένων”, μυστική επαναστατική οργάνωσις του 1849’, Επιστημονική Επετηρίς της Φιλοσοφικής Σχολής του Πανεπιστημίου Αθηνών II/23 (1972–73) 204–36Google Scholar.

95 Bouse (eds), Επιστολές της Αμαλίας, ΙΙ 767–71.

96 Vlachogiannis, G. (ed.), Στρατηγού Μακρυγιάννη Απομνημονεύματα (Athens 1907) II 445–7Google Scholar.

97 Athens police to interior minister, No. 486, 537, 2883, 1288, 6, 7, 13, 21 February 1852, ΓΑΚ, ΑΥΕΣ, file: refugees 1852. The number is given in Austrian ambassador to foreign minister, No. 7, 2 March 1852, ÖS, HHStA, PA, XVI. 18.

98 For instance Αιών, 7 February; Εφημερίς της Ανατολής, 23 February 1852 for the liberal critique, and N. Dragoumis, Ιστορικαί σημειώσεις (Athens 1879) II 227 for a conservative view.

99 ΓΑΚ, Ιστορικά αρχεία Γιάννη Βλαχογιάννη, file 288: Έγγραφα δίκης Σπυρομήλιου, 1851–55; Δίκη του υποστράτηγου πρώην υπουργού των στρατιωτικών Σ. Μήλιου (Athens 1855).

100 Austrian ambassador to foreign minister, Νο.6Β, 24 February 1852, ÖS, HHStA, AHP, Athen 1852.

101 Hansen, W. (ed.), Das Attentat auf Se. Majestät Kaiser Franz Josef I. am 18. Februar 1853 (Vienna 1853)Google Scholar; Pollini, L., La rivolta di Milano del 6 febbraio 1853 (Milan 1953)Google Scholar.

102 Interior minister to state prefects, No. 27/4481, 6 March 1853, AIEE.

103 Austrian ambassador to foreign minister, No. 19A-D, 20 May 1853, ÖS, HHStA, AHP, Athen 1853; on Spinazzolla, ÖS, HHStA, IB, BM-Akten, Krt.110, Zl. 98/1857; Archivio storico per la Calabria e la Lucania 25–26 (1956) 295–6.

104 Austrian ambassador to foreign minister, No. 22B, 23C, 10, 17 June 1853, ÖS, HHStA, AHP, Athen 1853; ΓΑΚ, ΑνΌ, file: 399.3. Πολιτικές συνομωσίες.

105 Patras police to prefect of Achaea, Νο. 576, 8 October 1851, ΓΑΚ, ΑΥΕΣ, file: refugees 1851; interior minister to foreign minister, Νο. 7496, 857, 2 October, 5 November 1851, ΑΥΕΞ, file: refugees 1851.

106 Austrian ambassador to foreign minister, No. 24A-C, 31C, 24 June, 12 August 1853, ÖS, HHStA, AHP, Athen 1853.

107 Donta, D., Η Ελλάς και αι Δυνάμεις κατά τον Κριμαϊκόν Πόλεμον (Thessaloniki 1973)Google Scholar.

108 Freitag, S. (ed.), Exiles from European Revolutions. Refugees in Mid-Victorian England (Oxford and New York 2003)Google Scholar.

109 Hobsbawm, E., The Age of Capital, 1848–75 (London 1975) 3Google Scholar. This means that Otto was no more ‘reactionary’ than Franz Joseph of Austria, Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia, or the smaller German and Italian sovereigns, who all took active measures after 1848 to secure their territories from the threat of revolution, real or imaginary. The same applied even to France, which under Napoleon III turned gradually against foreign fugitives; and even Britain, whose government enforced stricter policing and deported certain exiles deemed perilous in 1855: Siemann, W., ‘Deutschlands Ruhe, Sicherheit und Ordnung’: Die Anfänge der politischen Polizei 1806–1866 (Tübingen 1985)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Reiter, H., Politisches Asyl im 19. Jahrhundert: die deutschen politischen Flüchtlinge des Vormärz und der Revolution von 1848/49 in Europa und den USA (Berlin 1992)Google Scholar; Porter, B., The Refugee Question in Mid-Victorian Politics (Cambridge 1979)Google Scholar.

110 Reill, Nationalists, passim.

111 Clark, C., ‘Why should we think about the Revolutions of 1848 now?’, London Review of Books 41/5–7 (2019) 12–16Google Scholar.

112 Zanou, Transnational Patriotism, 207–14.

113 Pécout, G., ‘Philhellenism in Italy: political friendship and the Italian volunteers in the Mediterranean in the nineteenth century’, Journal of Modern Italian Studies 9/4 (2004) 405–27CrossRefGoogle Scholar; idem, ‘Pour une lecture méditerranéenne et transnationale du Risorgimento’, Revue d'histoire du XIXe siècle 44 (2012) 29–47.

114 Zanou, K., ‘Διανοούμενοι-“Γέφυρες” στη μετάβαση από την προεθνική στην εθνική εποχή’, Τα Ιστορικά 58 (2013) 3–22Google Scholar.

115 Kallivretakis, L., ‘Οι Γαριβαλδινοί στην Κρητική εξέγερση του 1866: το παιχνίδι των αριθμών’, Τα Ιστορικά 5 (1986) 121–38Google Scholar; Moutafidou, A., ‘Italian state politics and the disruptive factor of volunteer groups’, Mediterranean Historical Review 33/1 (2018) 27–4CrossRefGoogle Scholar4.