¹ The literature exploring the economic impact of other transportation technologies in the United States alone is large, including such works as Albion, Robert, The Rise of New York Port, 1815–1860 (New York, 1939)Google Scholar; Fogel, Robert W., Railroads and American Economic Growth (Baltimore, 1964)Google Scholar; Fishlow, Albert, American Railroads and the Transformation of the Antebellum Economy (Cambridge, Mass., 1965)Google Scholar; Larson, John L., Internal Improvement (Chapel Hill, N.C., 2001)Google Scholar; and Glaeser, Edward L. and Kohlhase, Janet E., ”Cities, Regions, and the Decline of Transport Costs,” Working Paper No. 9886, National Bureau of Economic Research, July 2003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar The American Association of Port Authorities estimates that the world's fifty largest containerports handled the equivalent of 207 million twenty-foot containers in 2003; each container is double-counted, so the association's figure equates to 51.8 million one-way trips by forty-foot containers. Data available at www.aapa-ports.org.

² Almost none of the many political or economic works dealing with New York's decline during the 1960s and 1970s even mentions the port, the main exception being Drennan, Matthew P., “The Decline and Rise of the New York Economy,” in Dual City: Restructuring New York, eds. Mollenkopf, John and Castells, Manuel (New York, 1990).Google Scholar

³ Raymond, Vernon, Metropolis 1985: An Interpretation of the Findings of the New York Metropolitan Region Study (Cambridge, Mass., 1960), 233–37; Drennan, 26.Google Scholar Much political analysis of this period misses the connection between the drastic change in the city's economic base and the social problems that seemed to engulf the city. See, for example, Cannato, Vincent J., John Linsday and His Struggle to Save New York (New York, 2001).Google Scholar

⁴ Benjamin, Chinitz, Freight and the Metropolis: The Impact of America's Transport Revolution on the New York Region (Cambridge, Mass., 1960), 21, 50Google Scholar; Condit, Carl W., The Port of New York: The History of the Rail and Terminal System from the Grand Central Electrification to the Present (Chicago, 1981), 103–7.Google Scholar Attempts by New Jersey interests to eliminate the single rate led to the formation of the Port of New York Authority in 1921. See Doig, Jameson W., Empire on the Hudson (New York, 2001).Google Scholar Truck share from unpublished Port of New York Authority (hereafter PNYA), data cited in Chinitz, 41; average wait time from PNYA, Proposal for Development of the Municipally Owned Waterfront and Piers of New York City (1948), 64.Google Scholar

⁵ Waterfront Commission of New York Harbor, Annual Reports, 1954 and 1955,13Google Scholar; Truck Loading Authority, “Official Loading Charges in the Port of New York,” Vernon Jensen papers, Catherwood Library, Cornell University, Collection 4067, Box 13; New York City Council on Port Development and Promotion, minutes of 18 Nov. 1963, Mayor Robert Wagner Papers, New York Municipal Archives (hereafter Wagner Papers), Reel 40532, Frame 728.Google Scholar

⁶ Dramatic photos of cargo handling on the West Coast, which was similar to that in New York, can be found in Louis, Goldblatt, Men and Machines: A Story about Longshoring on the West Coast Waterfront (San Francisco, 1963).Google Scholar See also William, DiFazio, Longshoremen: Community and Resistance on the Brooklyn Waterfront (South Hadley, Mass., 1985), 62Google Scholar

⁷ Gibson, Andrew interview, 28 Apr. 1998, National Museum of American History (hereafter NMAH), Containerization Oral History Project (COHP), Box AC NMAH 639, Folder 3; Paul Richardson interview, 1 July 1997, COHP, Box AC NMAH 639, Folder 10.Google Scholar

⁸ U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, and Bureau of Old-Age and Survivors Insurance, County Business Patterns, 1st quarter, 1951 (Washington, D.C., 1953), 56; Chinitz 31, 96.Google Scholar Detailed information on plant locations in selected industries in the early part of the century is in Haig, Robert Murray, Major Economic Factors in Metropolitan Growth and Arrangement (New York, 1927, repr. 1974), esp. 64–65, 96–97.Google Scholar

⁹ PNYA, Outlook for Waterborne Commerce through the Port of New York (Nov. 1948), Table VIII; U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, part 2 (Washington, D.C., 1975), 761; Chinitz, 77–78.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Chinitz, 202; U.S. Department of Commerce, Annual Report of the Federal Maritime Board and Maritime Administration (1955), 33.Google Scholar

¹¹ Jensen, Vernon, Strife on the Waterfront (Ithaca, N.Y., 1974), 105–10 and ch. 6.Google Scholar On waterfront labor in New York, see Rubin, Lester, The Negro in the Longshore Industry (Philadelphia 1974), 51–70Google Scholar; and Nelson, Bruce, Divided We Stand: American Workers and the Struggle for Black Equality (Princeton 2001), chs. 1 and 2.Google Scholar

¹² DiFazio, 62; Raskin, A. H., ”C-Men on the Waterfront,” New York Times Magazine, 9 Oct. 1955, 15Google Scholar; New York City Planning Commission, The Waterfront (New York, 1971), 89Google Scholar; Home, George, “City Action Seen on Port Program,” New York Times, 7 Aug. 1952Google Scholar; Austin, J. Tobin, , Transportation in the New York Metropolitan Region during the Next Twenty-Five Years (New York, 1954), 7.Google Scholar

¹³ Cover letter in PNYA, Marine Terminal Survey of the New Jersey Waterfront (New York, 1949)Google Scholar; Doig, 259–60. An article by Cullman in 1946 discussed the urgent need for improved port facilities and airports and noted the Port Authority's success at carrying out large capital projects; the subheadline—written at a time when the agency had no responsibility whatsoever for ports or airports—was: “Now the Port Authority, with 25 Years Behind It, Prepares for a New Era of Sea, Land, and Air Traffic.” See “Our Port of Many Ports,” New York Times Magazine, 5 May 1946,12.Google Scholar

¹⁴ PNYA, Proposal for Development, Tobin, Austin J., statement to New York Board of Estimate, 19 July 1948Google Scholar; PNYA, Annual Report 1949, 7Google Scholar; PNYA, Marine Terminal Survey, 5; Doig, 353–54 and 538. As early as 1946, the city's commissioner of marine and aviation rejected calls for the Port Authority to undertake port improvements: “The Port Authority has nothing to do with the Port of New York, and has no authority in it.” See “Rejuvenated Port to Rise in Future,” New York Times, 23 Nov. 1946.Google Scholar

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¹⁶ This scheme was first publicized in Raskin, A. H., ”Union Head Backs ‘Sea-Land’ Trucks,” New York Times, 17 Feb. 1954Google Scholar

¹⁷ Port Authority of New York and New Jersey (hereafter PANYNJ), Foreign Trade 1976 (New York, 1977), 23Google Scholar; author's interview with Richardson, Paul, Holmdel, N.J., 20 July 1992Google Scholar; PNYA, Weekly Report to Commissioners, 13 Mar. 1954, 16, Doig FilesGoogle Scholar; PNYA, Minutes of Committee on Port Planning, 8 Apr. 1954, 2, in Robert, B.Meyner Papers, New Jersey State Archives (hereafter Meyner Papers), Box 43.Google Scholar

¹⁸ PNYA, Minutes of Committee on Port Planning, 2 Sept. 1954, Meyner Papers, Box 43Google Scholar; PNYA, Minutes of the Commissioners, 9 Dec. 1954, 232, Meyner Papers, Box 43; 29 June 1955, 216; 26 Oct. 1955, 3i6 and 322, all in Meyner Papers, Box 44Google Scholar; PNYA, Thirty-Fifth Annual Report, 1956,1–4.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Pan-Atlantic Steamship Corporation, “Summary of Post-World War II Coastwise Operations,” typescript, 1 July 1957Google Scholar; “Railroads Assail Sea-Trailer Plan,” New York Times, 11 Feb. 1955Google Scholar; ICC, McLean Trucking Company and Pan-Atlantic Steamship Corporation—Investigation of Control, No. MC-F-5976, 8 July 1957Google Scholar; McLean Industries, Annual Report, 1955, 5 and 11Google Scholar; U.S. Department of Commerce, Annual Report of Federal Maritime Board and Maritime Administration, 1955 (Washington, D.C., 1955), 14; and 1956 (Washington, D.C., 1956), 7Google Scholar; Tantlinger, K. W., ”U.S. Containerization From the Beginning through Standardization,” paper presented to World Port Conference, Rotterdam, 1982.Google Scholar

²⁰ U.S. railroads introduced steel containers in the 1920s, but among other problems a 2,900-pound container could hold only 10,000 pounds of freight. Woodruff, G. C., “The Container Car as the Solution of the Less Than Carload Lot Problem,” speech to Associated Industries of Massachusetts, 23 Oct. 1929Google Scholar; PNYA, “Steel Containers,” in Via Port of New York (July 1954)Google Scholar: 1; author's telephone interview with Earl Hall, 14 May 1993. Beer anecdote from author's interview with Tozzoli, Guy F., New York, 13 Jan. 2004.Google Scholar

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²² PNYA, Annual Report, 1955, 9; and PANYNJ, Foreign Trade 1976.Google Scholar

²³ McNickle, Chris, To Be Mayor of New York (New York, 1993), 97–107; proposed 1954 capital budget, Wagner Papers, Reel 7709, Frame 1372Google Scholar; Bennett, John J., chairman, City Planning Commission, to Henry L. Epstein, deputy mayor, 11 Mar. 1954, Wagner Papers, Reel 7709, Frame 1179Google Scholar; New York City Department of Marine and Aviation (hereafter NYDMA), press release, 24 Aug. 1955, Wagner Papers, Reel 40531, Frame 1220; Jensen, 147; Wagner letter to City Planning Commission in Wagner Papers, Reel 40507, Frame 843.

²⁴ O'Connor address to New York Symposium on Increasing Port Efficiency, 28 Nov. 1956, Wagner Papers, Reel 40531, Frame 1554; NYDMA, “Rebuilding New York City's Waterfront,” 5 Sept. 1956, Wagner Papers, Reel 40531, Frames 1603–39.Google Scholar

²⁵ The city's Council on Port Promotion and Development estimated in 1963 that handling general cargo cost t en dollars per ton in New York versus five dollars per ton in Baltimore. Wagner Papers, Reel 40532, Frame 866; “Statement of Vincent A. G. O'Connor Regarding Operation of Grace Line Terminal,” Wagner Papers, Reel 40531, Frame 1268.

²⁶ Department of City Planning, Newsletter, Nov. 1956, Wagner Papers, Reel 40507, Frame 1596Google Scholar; oral history interviews with Wagner, Robert F., 21 May 1988, Julius C. C. Edelstein, 5 Apr. 1991, and Thomas Russell Jones, 10 June 1993, in LaGuardia-Wagner Archive, LaGuardia Community College, Queens, N.Y.; McNickle, 121Google Scholar; Downtown-Lower Manhattan Association, Lower Manhattan (1958), 6.Google Scholar

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²⁸ Felt, James, chairman, City Planning Commission, to O'Connor, 23 Sept. 1959, Wagner Papers, Reel 40508, Frame 691Google Scholar; Department of City Planning, “Redevelopment of Lower Manhattan East River Piers,” Sept. 1959Google Scholar; Moses, Robert to Felt, 29 Sept. 1959, Wagner Papers, Reel 40508, Frame 688Google Scholar; O'Connor to Board of Estimate, 25 Nov. 1959, Wagner Papers, Reel 40531, Frame 2179.Google Scholar Moses appears to have had no interest in shipping. The port is not mentioned in Robert, A. Caro's authoritative biography, The Power Broker (New York, 1974)Google Scholar, and Moses's memoir, Public Works: A Dangerous Trade (New York, 1970), has only a single general comment, 894. According to Guy Tozzolli, who knew Moses for many years, Moses was very interested in automobiles and passenger transportation, but not in freight issues; author's interview, New York, 13 Jan. 2004.

²⁹ Condit,346.

³⁰ Marine Engineering (Nov. 1955): 104; Tantlinger, “U.S. Containerization; PNYA, Minutes of Committee on Operations, 2 Feb. 1956, Meyner Papers, Box 44Google Scholar; “Tanker to Carry 2-Way Loads,” New York Times, 27 Apr. 1956.Google Scholar

³¹ Annual Report of the Federal Maritime Board and Maritime Administration, 1957,12Google Scholar; PNYA, Minutes of the Commissioners, 14 Feb. 1957, 98, Meyner Papers, Box 44Google Scholar; PNYA, Weekly Report to the Commissioners, 15 Nov. 1965, Doig FilesGoogle Scholar; U.S. National Academy of Sciences, Roll-On, Roll-Off Sea Transportation (Washington, D.C., 1957), 9Google Scholar; “Propeller Club Annual Convention,” Marine Engineering (Nov. 1958): 64–65Google Scholar.

³² PNYA, Report on Port Authority Operation of Port Newark & Newark Airport, January 1, 1960-December 31, 1960; Chinitz, 156.

³³ Elizabeth officials protested that the Port Authority was violating a 1951 promise not to condemn land without the city's consent. See PNYA, Weekly Report to the Commissioners, 31 Mar. 1956Google Scholar; Tobin to LaCorte, Elizabeth Mayor Nicholas, 21 May 1956; Meyner to Elizabeth City Attorney Jacob Pfeferstein, 4 J u n e 1956Google Scholar; Mulhearn, Francis A., PNYA legal department to Tobin, 29 June 1956, all in Doig Files; O'Connor address on Marine and Aviation Day, 23 May 1961, Wagner Papers, Reel 40532, Frame 325Google Scholar; “Creation of a Container Port,” VIA Port of New York, special issue, Transatlantic Transport Preview (1965): 31Google Scholar; Tozzoli, Anthony J. and Wilson, John S., ”The Elizabeth, N. J. Port Authority Marine Terminal,” Civil Engineering (Jan. 1969): 34–39.Google Scholar

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⁴⁰ Jensen, 305–10, 348, and 371; Ross, 402–5. The ILA won one important concession in 1969, when the “50-mile rule” awarded its members the right to consolidate or deconsolidate containers holding multiple shipments whose origin or destination is within fifty miles of the port. This job-preserving rule, though, applied to only a fifth of the port's container traffic. On the ILA's efforts to control the location of work, see Herod, Andrew, Labor Geographies: Workers and the Landscapes of Capitalism (New York, 2001), ch. 4.Google Scholar

⁴¹ Longshore productivity data were problematic in the pre-container era, because productivity depended upon the nature of the cargo. The estimates here were made by adding general-cargo tonnage to one-fifth of total bulk tonnage excluding petroleum, then dividing by the number of man-hours worked. See Fairley, Lincoln, Facing Mechanization: The West Coast Longshore Plan (Los Angeles 1979), 401Google Scholar; Cowan, Edward, “Container Service on Atlantic Begins,” New York Times, 24 Apr. 1966.Google Scholar

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⁴⁸ Fairplay, 11 Jan. 1968, 92AGoogle Scholar; Sletmo, Gunnar K. and Williams, Ernest W. Jr., Liner Conferences in the Container Age: U.S. Policy at Sea (New York 1981), 39Google Scholar; comment of Theodore DeSmedt, president of Isthmian Line, in New York Times, 20 Mar. 1968Google Scholar; Sea-Land became a subsidiary of Reynolds, R. J., the tobacco giant, while Walter Kidde & Co. bought U.S. Lines, both in 1969.Google Scholar

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