¹ Lee De Forest, quoted in “The Revolt against Radio,” Fortune, Mar. 1947, 101.

² Newman, Kathy, Radio Active: Advertising and Consumer Activism, 1935–1947 (Berkeley, 2004)Google Scholar; Pickard, Victor, America's Battle for Media Democracy (New York, 2014)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³ Carroll Carroll, quoted in “Revolt against Radio,” 172.

⁴ Niles Trammell, “We Should Not Be Complacent,” Broadcasting, 24 Oct. 1946, 20.

⁵ Cowell, Robert, quoted in Peatman, John Gray, ed., Radio and Business: Proceedings of the First Annual Conference on Radio and Business, (New York: City College of New York, 1945), 31Google Scholar.

⁶ Histories of the advertising industry include Marchand, Roland, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920–1940 (Berkeley, 1985)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Lears, Jackson, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York, 1994)Google Scholar; Laird, Pamela Walker, Advertising Progress: American Business and the Rise of Consumer Marketing (Baltimore, 1998)Google Scholar; Pope, Daniel, The Making of Modern Advertising (New York, 1983)Google Scholar; Schudson, Michael, Advertising, the Uneasy Persuasion (New York, 1984)Google Scholar; and Fox, Stephen, The Mirror Makers: A History of American Advertising and Its Creators (New York, 1984)Google Scholar.

⁷ Rod Serling's complaints can be found in Baughman, James, Same Time, Same Station: Creating American Television, 1948–1961 (Baltimore, 2007), 205Google Scholar; and Erik Barnouw, The Sponsor: Notes on a Modern Potentate (New York, 1978), 50–51. See also Fisk, Catherine L., Writing for Hire: Unions, Hollywood, and Madison Avenue (Cambridge, MA, 2016)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁹ Hilmes, Michele, Network Nations: A Transnational History of British and American Broadcasting (New York, 2011)Google Scholar.

¹⁰ Douglas, Susan, Inventing American Broadcasting, 1899–1922 (Baltimore, 1987)Google Scholar; Smulyan, Susan, Selling Radio: The Commercialization of American Broadcasting, 1920–34 (Washington, DC, 1994)Google Scholar; McChesney, Robert, Telecommunications, Mass Media, and Democracy: The Battle for Control of U.S. Broadcasting, 1928–35 (New York, 1993)Google Scholar; and Newman, Radio Active; Michele Hilmes, “Beating the Networks at Their Own Game: The Hollywood/Ad Agency Alliance of the 1930s” (unpublished paper presented at Society for Cinema Studies conference, 1995), 2. See also Hilmes, Radio Voices: American Broadcasting, 1922–1952 (Minneapolis, 1997); Barnouw, Erik, The Golden Web: A History of Broadcasting in the United States, 1933–53 (New York, 1968)Google Scholar; and Doerksen, Clifford, American Babel: Rogue Radio Broadcasters of the Jazz Age (Philadelphia, 2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹⁴ Edgar H. Felix, “Broadcasting's Place in the Advertising Spectrum,” Advertising & Selling, 15 Dec. 1926, 19.

¹⁵ Bergreen, Laurence, Look Now, Pay Later: The Rise of Network Broadcasting (Garden City, NY, 1980), 30Google Scholar; Czitrom, Daniel, Media and the American Mind (Chapel Hill, 1982), 79Google Scholar.

¹⁶ Smulyan, Selling Radio, 38; “Reminiscences of Frank Atkinson Arnold: oral history, 1951,” in Radio pioneers project, Oral History Research Office, Columbia University, 8.

¹⁷ Dygert, Warren, Radio as an Advertising Medium (New York, 1939), 7Google Scholar.

¹⁸ Howard Angus, “The Importance of Stars in Your Radio Program,” Broadcast Advertising, Feb. 1932, 26.

¹⁹ Meyers, Cynthia B., A Word from Our Sponsor: Admen, Advertising, and the Golden Age of Radio (New York, 2014)Google Scholar.

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²¹ Peter Kovacs, “Big Tobacco and Broadcasting, 1923–60: An Interdisciplinary History” (PhD diss., University of Texas at Austin, 2017); Cox, Jim, Sold on Radio: Advertisers in the Golden Age of Broadcasting (Jefferson, NC, 2008)Google Scholar.

²² Roy Durstine, “When Advertising Turns to Showmanship,” Broadcast Advertising, 15 June 1938, 19.

²³ “The program or commercial broadcast should . . . be developed and supervised, not by outsiders, but by an advertiser's own agency with a thorough understanding of sales and advertising objectives.” Memo, BBDO Radio Department, 1 May 1932, BBDO Records, New York. (Note: BBDO-New York allowed me access to their uncatalogued private records in 2014 but they have since donated these materials to Hagley Museum and Library, Wilmington, DE.)

²⁴ Agencies usually earned a 15 percent commission on the price of media space. This commission was putatively charged to the media outlet. For example, if the newspaper charged $100 for ad space to an advertiser, the agency “billed” the advertiser $100 but only forwarded $85 to the publisher. Agency sizes were measured by the amount of annual “billings” to media outlets. On radio, agencies not only earned a commission on airtime but also usually charged a percentage of talent and production costs as well.

²⁵ Fox, Mirror Makers, 158.

²⁶ Meyers, Word from Our Sponsor, 167.

²⁷ Meyers, Word from Our Sponsor, 208–24.

²⁸ Advertising Agency Executive, “When Will Radio Quit Selling Its ‘Editorial Pages’?” Advertising & Selling, 22 July 1931, 17–18. (Note: the original article was bylined “An Advertising Agency Executive.”)

²⁹ Donald S. Shaw, “The Policy Racket in Radio,” Advertising & Selling, 12 Aug. 1937, 31, 63.

³⁰ “How to Keep the Reds off the Air—Sanely,” Sponsor, 5 Nov. 1951, 86. For more, see Meyers, Cynthia B., “Inside a Broadcasting Blacklist: Kraft Television Theatre, 1951–55,” Journal of American History 105, no. 3 (2018): 589–616CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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³² Hilmes, Michele, Hollywood and Broadcasting: From Radio to Cable (Urbana, IL, 1990), 49–74Google Scholar.

³³ Dygert, Radio, 14.

³⁴ Staff Meeting Minutes, 2 Feb. 1932, 4, J. Walter Thompson Records, John W. Hartman Center for Sales, Advertising and Marketing History, Duke University (hereafter, Hartman Center).

³⁵ Havig, Alan, “Frederic Wakeman's The Hucksters and the Postwar Debate over Commercial Radio,” Journal of Broadcasting, 28, no. 2 (1984): 187–99CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Newman, Radio Active, 169–74.

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³⁷ “Revolt against Radio,” 101.

³⁸ Herta Herzog and Marion Harper Jr., “The Anatomy of the Radio Commercial,” Advertising & Selling, July 1948, 69; Charles Hull Wolfe, Modern Radio Advertising (New York, 1949), 602.

³⁹ Pickard, America's Battle.

⁴⁰ “Blue Network Sold to Former Ad Man Edward J. Noble for $8,000,000,” Printers’ Ink, 6 Aug. 1943, 33.

⁴¹ Federal Communications Commission, Public Service Responsibility of Broadcast Licenses (Washington, DC, 1946).

⁴² Philips Carlin, quoted in Peatman, Radio and Business, 25.

⁴³ Sterling, Christopher and Kittross, John, Stay Tuned: A Concise History of American Broadcasting (Belmont, CA, 1978), 533, 516Google Scholar.

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⁴⁶ Hilmes, Radio Voices, xiv.

⁴⁷ Memo from Carroll Carroll to Danny Danker et al., 28 Apr. 1944, Carroll Carroll Papers, Hartman Center.

⁴⁸ Sterling and Kittross, Stay Tuned, 535.

⁴⁹ Boddy, Fifties Television; Baughman, Same Time, Same Station; Sterling and Kittross, Stay Tuned, 248–312.

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⁵² Memo from Tax Cumings to Ben Duffy, 23 Aug. 1949, box 76, folder “GE,” Bruce Barton Papers, WHS (hereafter, Barton papers).

⁵³ Mashon, “NBC”; Randall Lee Vogt, “The Rise of an American Television Model: Network Scheduling, Production, and Sponsorship of Programs from 1948–1959” (PhD diss., University of Wisconsin–Madison, 1993).

⁵⁴ Meyers, Cynthia B., “The Problems with Sponsorship in Broadcasting, 1930s–50s: Perspectives from the Advertising Industry,” Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television 31, no. 3 (2011): 355–72CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁵⁶ Mashon, “NBC”; Boddy, William, “Operation Frontal Lobes versus the Living Room Toy: The Battle over Programme Control in Early Television,” Media, Culture and Society 9, no. 3 (1987): 347–68CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁵⁸ Boddy, Fifties Television, 159, 162.

⁵⁹ Merlin Aylesworth to Alfred Sloan, 21 Dec. 1934, box 27, folder 28, NBC Records, WHS.

⁶⁰ Marchand, Roland, Creating the Corporate Soul: The Rise of Public Relations and Corporate Imagery in American Big Business (Berkeley, 1998), 167, 170, 9Google Scholar.

⁶¹ McCarthy, Citizen Machine, 32.

⁶² Marchand, Creating the Corporate Soul; Acland, Charles R. and Wasson, Haidee, eds., Useful Cinema (Durham, NC, 2011)Google Scholar; Golden, L. L., Only by Public Consent: American Corporations’ Search for Favorable Opinion (New York, 1968)Google Scholar.

⁶³ George Albee, “The Du Pont Cavalcade of America” (unpublished manuscript, ca. 1947), box 11, folder 23, Advertising Department Records, acc. 1803, DuPont Records, Hagley Museum and Library, Wilmington, DE.

⁶⁴ Bird, “Better Living.”

⁶⁵ Fones-Wolf, “Favorable Business Climate,” 226.

⁶⁶ McCarthy, Citizen Machine, 1–30.

⁶⁷ Hawes, William, American Television Drama: The Experimental Years (Tuscaloosa, AL, 1986)Google Scholar; Molly Schneider, “Americanness and the Midcentury Television Anthology Drama” (PhD diss., Northwestern University, 2016).

⁶⁸ Boddy, Fifties Television, 80.

⁶⁹ Barnouw, The Sponsor, 50.

⁷⁰ Baughman, Same Time, Same Station, 205.

⁷¹ McCarthy, Citizen Machine, 39.

⁷² Carroll Carroll to Abel Green, 20 Dec. 1946, Carroll Carroll Papers, Hartman Center.

⁷³ McCarthy, Citizen Machine, 243.

⁷⁴ “You Don't Need Ratings to Get Good Results,” Sponsor, 6 Feb. 1956, 37.

⁷⁵ “Coming Up: Our Biggest TV Season,” BBDO Newsletter, Aug. 1955, 2, BBDO Records.

⁷⁶ “This Really Happened,” Armstrong Circle Theatre brochure, 1955, 1, 2, box 5, David Susskind Papers, WHS (hereafter, Susskind papers).

⁷⁷ Myron Berkley Shaw, “A Descriptive Analysis of the Documentary Drama Television Program ‘The Armstrong Circle Theatre,’ 1955–61” (PhD diss., University of Michigan, 1962), 15, 17, 18.

⁷⁸ Shaw, “Descriptive Analysis,” 18–20.

⁷⁹ William A. Mehler Jr., Let the Buyer Have Faith: The Story of Armstrong (Lancaster, PA, 1987), 4–5.

⁸⁰ Shaw, “Descriptive Analysis,” 27; Henning Prentis Jr., “The Historical Cycle in Business,” n.d., 16, box 75, folder “Armstrong Cork,” Barton papers.

⁸¹ Mehler, Let the Buyer Have Faith, 128.

⁸² Its corporate historian claims the first serious strike did not occur until 1970. Mehler, 151.

⁸³ Mehler, 6, 20, 23, 40, 56, 58.

⁸⁴ John Watson, “Backstrand of Armstrong Cork,” Television Magazine, Nov. 1958, 92.

⁸⁵ Tom Dillon, “How Armstrong Got Fifty Years Ahead of American Industry” (speech at Armstrong Cork Management Meeting, 7 Mar. 1977), 12, BBDO Records; Jeffrey Cruikshank and Arthur W. Schultz, The Man Who Sold America: The Amazing (But True!) Story of Albert D. Lasker and the Creation of the Advertising Industry (Boston, 2010).

⁸⁶ Dillon, “Fifty Years Ahead,” 13.

⁸⁷ Dillon, 11.

⁸⁸ Shaw, “Descriptive Analysis,” 24.

⁸⁹ Shaw, 30, 33.

⁹⁰ Watson, “Backstrand of Armstrong Cork,” 92.

⁹¹ Shaw, “Descriptive Analysis,” 33.

⁹² Mehler, Let the Buyer Have Faith, 64; Shaw, “Descriptive Analysis,” 34.

⁹³ Shaw, “Descriptive Analysis,” 34.

⁹⁴ Sales volume in 1940 was $57.3 million; by 1950 it was $186.7 million. Shaw, 24.

⁹⁵ Ed Roberts, “Television” (unpublished manuscript, ca. 1966), 6, BBDO Records. According to Shaw, Armstrong spent $10,000 for production costs and $15,000 for airtime costs for each telecast. Shaw, “Descriptive Analysis,” 42.

⁹⁶ Barton, Bruce, The Man Nobody Knows (Indianapolis, 1925)Google Scholar. See Ribuffo, Leo, “Jesus Christ as Business Statesman,” American Quarterly 33, no. 2 (1981): 206–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Susman, Warren, Culture as History (New York, 1984), 122–49Google Scholar.

⁹⁷ Marchand, Creating the Corporate Soul, 134.

⁹⁸ Bruce Barton, “What Advertising Has Done for Americans,” Financial Digest, Mar. 1928, 7; Barton, “Speech to Be Delivered over the Radio,” 30 Nov. 1929, 7, BBDO Records.

⁹⁹ Marchand, Creating the Corporate Soul, 151.

¹⁰⁰ Reproduced in BBDO 1891–1991: The First 100 Years, 24, BBDO Records.

¹⁰¹ “New Audition Room to Be Ready for Operation Saturday,” BBDO Newsletter, 9 Oct. 1931, 7.

¹⁰² Bruce Barton, A Parade of the States (Garden City, NY, 1932); Bird, “Better Living,” 32–38.

¹⁰³ Gram, Martin Jr., The History of the Cavalcade of America (Kearny, NE, 1998)Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁴ DuPont press release, 27 Sept. 1935, box 36, folder “Cavalcade,” Public Affairs Department, acc. 1410, DuPont Records, Hagley Museum and Library, Wilmington, DE.

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¹⁰⁶ “Time Marches On,” BBDO Newsletter, 7 May 1937, 5, BBDO Records.

¹⁰⁷ Radio programs of 1951 included Jack Benny for American Tobacco, Theatre Guild on the Air for US Steel, and Cavalcade of America for DuPont; TV programs of 1951 included Your Hit Parade for American Tobacco and Betty Crocker for General Mills. “Facts about BBDO,” Feb. 1951, 19–22, BBDO Records.

¹⁰⁸ “Facts about BBDO,” 22.

¹⁰⁹ “A Media Man's View of Television,” BBDO Newsletter, 30 June 1949, 2, BBDO Records.

¹¹⁰ Alfred Jaffe, “A Week at BBDO,” Sponsor, 17 May 1954, 141.

¹¹¹ “BBD&O Soars to $72,000,000 Record in Repping 17 Teleshows for Clients,” Weekly Variety, 11 July 1956, 1.

¹¹² Cogley, John, Report on Blacklisting, vol. 2, Radio-Television (New York, 1956), 118Google Scholar.

¹¹³ John Danforth to Alex Osborn et al., 1 Aug. 1952, box 75, folder “Armstrong Cork,” Barton papers.

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¹¹⁵ BBDO claimed to have measured the “good will” that the Cavalcade program produced for DuPont. “Facts about BBDO,” 32.

¹¹⁶ Foreman claimed he was inspired by reading Time magazine, a former client of BBDO; Robert Foreman, interview, n.d., BBDO Records. Susskind also produced the DuPont Show of the Month, Kaiser Aluminum Hour, and Philco Television Playhouse, among others. Stephen Battaglio, David Susskind: A Televised Life (New York, 2010), 24. See also Peter Labuza, “When a Handshake Meant Something: Lawyer, Deal-Making, and the Emergence of New Hollywood” (PhD diss., University of Southern California, 2020), 255–66.

¹¹⁷ Circle Theatre alternated weeks with Playwrights ’56 in 1955–1956 and with Kaiser Aluminum Hour in 1956–1957, both on NBC. Shaw, “Descriptive Analysis,” 44.

¹¹⁸ Shaw, 44.

¹¹⁹ Faye Lee, quoted in Shaw, 72; Robert Costello, quoted in Shaw, 71.

¹²⁰ Unsigned letter to David Susskind, 21 July 1955, box 3, “Reports” folder, Susskind papers.

¹²¹ “This Really Happened.” Edwards resigned from the program in April 1961 because CBS News changed its policies and no longer allowed its journalists to appear on entertainment programs. Shaw, “Descriptive Analysis,” 47.

¹²² Battaglio, David Susskind, 24.

¹²³ Robert Costello, quoted in Shaw, “Descriptive Analysis,” 64.

¹²⁴ For short-story versions of three telecasts, see Trudy and Irving Settel, The Best of Armstrong Circle Theatre (New York, 1959).

¹²⁵ Watson, “Backstrand of Armstrong Cork,” 54.

¹²⁶ Mehler, Let the Buyer Have Faith, 58.

¹²⁷ Bob Chandler, “Armstrong Exec Uncorks Some Revealing Conclusions about TV,” Weekly Variety, 29 Jan. 1958, 41.

¹²⁸ Watson, “Backstrand of Armstrong Cork,” 54.

¹²⁹ “You Don't Need Ratings,” 86. By 1962, about one hundred people were involved in Circle Theatre's production, including six researchers, forty technicians, and ten BBDO representatives. Shaw, “Descriptive Analysis,” 74.

¹³⁰ Shaw, 54.

¹³¹ “Armstrong Circle Theatre Editorial Policy,” ca. 1955, 3, box 3, “BBDO” folder, Susskind papers.

¹³² Mary Cummings to Jacqueline Babbin, 21 Dec. 1955, box 3, “BBDO” folder, Susskind papers.

¹³³ Watson, “Backstrand of Armstrong Cork,” 54.

¹³⁴ Babbin to Cummings, 21 May 1957, box 3, “BBDO” folder, Susskind papers; Murray Horowitz, “‘People Love Facts and Costello Loves People’ Themes TV's ‘Circle,’” Weekly Variety, 15 Nov. 1961, 29.

¹³⁵ Costello, quoted in Shaw, “Descriptive Analysis,” 76.

¹³⁶ Shaw, 77.

¹³⁷ Everitt, David, A Shadow of Red: Communism and the Blacklist in Radio and Television (Chicago, 2007), 270Google Scholar.

¹³⁸ “Buyers’ Market Challenge,” Broadcasting-Telecasting, 11 Apr. 1949, 90.

¹³⁹ Watson, “Backstrand of Armstrong Cork,” 91.

¹⁴⁰ “You Don't Need Ratings,” 37. Banzhaf later told Variety that ratings are a “false god”; Chandler, “Armstrong Exec Uncorks,” 25.

¹⁴¹ Shaw, “Descriptive Analysis,” 52.

¹⁴² Chandler, “Armstrong Exec Uncorks,” 41.

¹⁴³ “You Don't Need Ratings,” 37.

¹⁴⁴ “You Don't Need Ratings,” 37, 82.

¹⁴⁵ Boddy, Fifties Television, 189.

¹⁴⁶ Craig Moodie, memo, 5 Apr. 1958, box 3, “Armstrong Circle Theatre” folder, Susskind papers.

¹⁴⁷ “This Is BBDO,” credentials, July 1959, 23, BBDO Records.

¹⁴⁸ Watson, “Backstrand of Armstrong Cork,” 91.

¹⁴⁹ Ralph Cohn at Screen Gems explained, “As you know, we have never found it practical to grant an advertiser any contractual right to pass upon the entertainment value of any of our programs.” Cohn to Dan Seymour, 13 Apr. 1956, box 27, “Clients Eastman Kodak: Screen Gems, 1956” folder, Dan Seymour Papers, JWT Records, Hartman Center.

¹⁵⁰ Chandler, “Armstrong Exec Uncorks,” 25.

¹⁵¹ “TV Draws Fact and Fiction Lines; Circle Theater Is Caught Between,” National Observer, 21 Jan. 1963, n.p.

¹⁵² “TV Draws.”

¹⁵³ “TV Draws.” See Socolow, Michael, “‘We Should Make Money on Our News’: The Problem of Profitability in Network Broadcast Journalism History,” Journalism 11, no. 6 (2010): 675–91CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹⁵⁵ “Sponsor-Scope,” 22.

¹⁵⁶ Mehler, Let the Buyer Have Faith, 129.

¹⁵⁷ “Armstrong Makes Its Move,” Sponsor, 15 Mar. 1965, 38–39.

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¹⁵⁹ William Boddy, “The Seven Dwarfs and the Money Grubbers: The Public Relations Crisis of US Television in the Late 1950s,” in The Logics of Television, ed. Patricia Mellencamp (Bloomington, IN, 1990), 98–116.

¹⁶⁰ Boddy, Fifties Television, 159.

¹⁶¹ “Co-Sponsorship Stages Strong Network Comeback,” Sponsor, 1 June 1964, 42.

¹⁶² “TV's Cost Spiral,” Sponsor, 1 June 1964, 30.

¹⁶³ Sterling and Kittross, Stay Tuned, 518.

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¹⁶⁸ A. Frank Reel, The Networks: How They Stole the Show (New York, 1979), xvii.

¹⁶⁹ Albert Kroeger, “A Long, Hard Look at the Genealogy of Network TV,” Television Magazine, Apr. 1966, 35.

¹⁷⁰ McMillin, “Commercial Commentary,” 42.

¹⁷¹ “What Hollywood Doesn't Tell Madison Ave,” Sponsor, 15 July 1963, 33, 35.

¹⁷² “30-30 or Fight, Agencies Defend Piggybacks,” Sponsor, 3 Feb. 1964, 34.

¹⁷³ Les Brown, Television: The Business behind the Box (New York, 1971), 65.

¹⁷⁴ “As Good a Buy as Ever,” Sponsor, 1 June 1964, 30.

¹⁷⁵ “TV's Cost Spiral,” 30.

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²⁰¹ Price, Jonathan, The Best Thing on TV: Commercials (New York, 1978), 96–97Google Scholar. The best-known films by the Maysles include Gimme Shelter (1970) and Grey Gardens (1975).

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²⁰⁶ “The Ad-Producer—A New Breed,” Sponsor, 4 May 1964, 48.

²⁰⁷ Wainwright, Television Copywriter, 17.

²⁰⁸ “Stalking the Wild Cranberry: The Making of a TV Commercial” (George Gage Productions, 1972), https://archive.org/details/stalking_the_wild_cranberry_1972.

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