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Black Power—Nixon Style: The Nixon Administration and Minority Business Enterprise

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 December 2011

Dean Kotlowski
Dean Kotlowski
Affiliation:
DEAN KOTLOWSKI teaches history at Indiana University and Butler University.
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Abstract

In the recent debate over minority contract set-asides, many policy-makers have forgotten this program's origins. Richard Nixon, moved by philosophical, practical, and political considerations, made minority business enterprise a theme of his 1968 presidential campaign and his first administration. By using set-asides, the Nixon administration overcame its meager funding of the Office of Minority Business Enterprise (OMBE) and encouraged minority entrepreneurship. Nixon's actions influenced federal policy toward minority owned businesses for two decades.

Type
Articles
Information
Business History Review , Volume 72 , Issue 3: The Nixon Administration and Minority Business Enterprise , Autumn 1998 , pp. 409 - 445
Copyright
Copyright © The President and Fellows of Harvard College 1998

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89 Memorandum of Meeting, 19 Mar. 1970, folder: Minority Business Enterprise Off. of 1970, box 68, Commerce Files, Stans Papers; Stans tentatively approved using goals in Dec. of 1969. See Stans Handwritten Comment on Draft Memo, Stans to Sam Wyly, folder: National Advisory Council on Minority Business Enterprise, box 6, Commerce Files, Stans Papers.

90 Memo, Roeser to Stans, 26 June 1969, folder: Minority Business Enterprise June, box 14, Commerce Files, Stans Papers.

91 Memo, Moynihan to Staff Secretary, 6 Feb. 1969, and Memo (plus attachment), Robert J. Brown to Stans, 14 Feb. 1969, folder: White House—Feb., box 4, Commerce Files, Stans Papers.

92 Memo, Stans to George W. Romney, 21 May 1970, folder: Minority Enterprise, box 7, Albert Applegate Papers, Michigan Historical Collections, Bentley Historical Library; Memo, Roeser to Stans, 23 Apr. 1969, folder: Minority Business Enterprise Apr. 7-30, 1969; Memo, Robert M. Smalley to Stans, 29 Aug. 1969, folder: Minority Business Aug. 1969; Department of Commerce News, 11 Sept. 1969, folder: Minority Business Enterprise—Sept.—all in box 14, Commerce Files, Stans Papers; Staff Meeting Notes, 18 Feb., 10 Mar., 7 July, 22 July, and 19 Aug. 1969, folder: Commerce Staff Meetings 1969-70, box 2-A, Commerce and Personal Papers, Stans Papers; Minutes of Meeting of the National Advisory Council for Minority Business Enterprise, 13 Oct. 1969, p. 1, folder: National Advisory Council on Minority Business Enterprise, box 6, Commerce Files, Stans Papers.

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94 In his autobiography, Stans declined to identify OMBE's first chief, only noting that he was “Caucasian.” See Stans, One of the President's Men, 173.

95 Stans, One of the President's Men, 169; Cottin, “Business Report: Staff Problems, Mistrust Delay Nixon's Minority Business Plan,” 131.

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97 “Minority Business Enterprise: A Timely Report,” n.d., folder: Office of Minority Business Enterprise (1), box 2, May Files, Ford Presidential Papers; Memo, Charles H. Alexander to Jan T. Dykman (with Stans handwritten comments), 18 Feb. 1969, folder: Minority Business Enterprise 1969, box 68, Commerce Files, Stans Papers.

98 “OMBE: Searching for Direction After Surviving a Fitful Infancy,” Black Enterprise 3 (Jan. 1971): 14-18.

99 United States Small Business Administration, SBA Profile: Who We Are and What We Do (Washington, D.C., 1994), 20Google Scholar; Graham, Civil Rights Era, 314; Memo, Venable to Stans, folder: MBE June 1-15, box 33, Commerce Files, Stans Papers; Memo, Hilary Sandoval, Jr. to Robert Brown, 23 Nov. 1970, folder: [Ex] PQ-2 11/1/70-12/3/70, box 2, PQ-Procurement, Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

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101 Memo (plus attachment), Leonard Garment to Finch, 16 Dec. 1970, folder: Memoranda—Various 1969-76, box 2, Leonard Garment Papers, Library of Congress.

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103 Letter, Jack Crawford to Robert C. Mardian, 13 Feb. 1970, folder: Confidential Memoranda, box 1, Robert C. Mardian Papers, Hoover Institution Archives. Correspondence between the two men seemed polite but distant. See Memo, Stans to Sandoval, 27 May 1970, folder: MBE May 15-May 28, box 32, Commerce Files, Stans Papers. Robert Brown also was cool to Sandoval's appointment arguing that he was too conservative, had no record on minority enterprise and, as a Mexican-American, would earn the distrust of African Americans. Memo, Robert Brown to Stans, 17 Feb. 1969, folder: White House: Feb., box 4, Commerce Files, Stans Papers.

104 Stans Handwritten Comment on Memo, Venable to Stans, 25 Sept. 1970, folder: Minority Business Enterprise Off. of 1970, box 68, Commerce Files, Stans Papers.

105 Staff Meeting Notes, 22 Sept. 1971, folder: Commerce Staff Meetings 1971-72, box 2-A, Commerce and Personal Papers, Stans Papers.

106 Memo, May to Casselman, 30 July 1974, folder: Office of Minority Business Enterprise (3), box 2, May Files, Ford Presidential Papers.

107 “Assembly Told Negroes Want Changes in Capitalism,” New York Times, 27 Apr. 1969, 62. Roy Innis, executive director of CORE, was called to testify before the Senate Subcommittee on Small Business regarding minority business enterprise but failed to appear. United States Senate, Committee on Banking and Currency, Subcommittee on Business, Small, Hearings on Federal Minority Enterprise Program, Dec. 9-12 1969 (Washington, D.C., 1970), 154Google Scholar.

108 Leadership Conference on Civil Rights Memorandum, “A Legislative and Enforcement Program for the 91st Congress and the Administration, 1969-70,” 1, folder: Desegregation—Mississippi—1969, box E13, LCCR Papers.

109 ‘“Black Capitalism’ Idea Assailed By a Negro Member of Reserve,” New York Times, 30 Dec. 1969, 49.

110 “Black Capitalism,” Wall Street Journal, 10 July 1969, 1; Letter, Whitney M. Young, Jr. to Stans, 5 Nov. 1969, folder: Minority Business Dec. 1-10 1969, box 14, Commerce Files, Stans Papers.

111 Letter (plus attachments), Venable to Young, 4 Dec. 1969, folder: Minority Business Dec. 1-10 1969, box 14; Letter, Stans to Vernon E. Jordan, Jr., 13 Dec. 1971, folder: Minority Business Enterprise Oct.-Dec. 1971, box 54, Commerce Files, Stans Papers.

112 Letter, Jackie Robinson to Stans, 25 Nov. 1969, folder: Minority Business Dec. 1-10, 1969, box 14, Commerce Files, Stans Papers.

113 Letter, Robinson to Nixon, 9 Feb. 1970, folder: White House Feb. 16-28th, box 21, Commerce Files, Stans Papers.

114 Memo (plus attached article), Flanigan to Stans, folder: White House—Feb l-15th, box 21, Commerce Files, Stans Papers.

115 Letter, Milton O. McGinty to William A. Raspberry, 25 July 1970, folder: Info Copies with Secy Stans Notes 1971, box 62, Commerce Files, Stans Papers.

116 Memo, Venable to Stans, 19 Nov. 1970, folder: MBE Nov., box 31, Commerce Files, Stans Papers.

117 U.S. Senate, Subcommittee on Small Business, Hearings on Federal Minority Enterprise Program, 2.

118 Memo (plus attachments), Tod Hullin to Stans et al., 13 Aug. 1969, folder: White House Aug.-Sept., box 4, Commerce Files, Stans Papers.

119 Memo, Moynihan to Staff Secretary, 17 Oct. 1969, folder: Ex FG 21-17-1 Advisory Council on Minority Enterprise, box 7, FG 21 Department of Commerce, Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

120 In using phrases like “policy circles” and “policy network,” I am to a certain extent inspired by the political scientist Hugh Heclo's concept of issue networks. I did not use his term because it stresses alliances between policy specialists within the bureaucracy and interest groups often to oppose a president's policy. My policy networks involve Republican political appointees within the federal departments working together with little interest group support to advance a president's policy. See Heclo, Hugh, “Issue Networks and the Executive Establishment,” in The New American Political System, ed. King, Anthony (Washington, D.C., 1978), 87–124Google Scholar.

121 Brown, Robert J., “Black Memories of the White House: Nixon,” American Visions 10 (Feb./Mar. 1995): 44–45Google Scholar; Draft Memorandum to Heads of Departments and Agencies, 18 Oct. 1969, folder: [Ex] PQ 2 7/1/70-7/31/70, box 2, PQ-Procurement, Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

122 Memo, John D. Ehrlichman to Nixon, 21 Nov. 1969, folder: [Ex] PQ 2 7/1/70-7/31/70, box 2, PQ-Procurement, Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

123 Memo, Moynihan to Staff Secretary, 17 Oct. 1969, folder: Ex Fg 21-17-1 Advisory Council on Minority Enterprise, box 7, FG 21—Department of Commerce, Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

124 Robert L. Kunzig Oral History with John Luter, 8 Sept. 1972, 1-5, Oral History #199, Eisenhower Library; Memo, Ted Trimmer to Bradley H. Patterson, Jr., 17 Nov. 1969, folder: [Ex] PQ 2 7/1/70-7/31/70, box 2, PQ-Procurement, Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

125 Memo, Nixon to Heads of Departments and Agencies, 5 Dec. 1969, folder: Ex FG 21-17 Office of Minority Business Enterprise [1 of 2], box 7, FG 21—Department of Commerce, Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

126 Memo (plus attachments), George J. Pantos to Stans, No Date [Nov. 1969], folder: Small Business Administration, box 3, Commerce Files, Stans Papers.

127 Memo, Thomas S. Kleppe to Stans, 2 July 1971, folder: Minority Business Enterprise July, box 54, Commerce Files, Stans Papers.

128 Memo, Nate Bayer to Kenneth Cole through John Evans, 19 June 1972, folder: [Ex] PQ 2 8/1/71- [4 of 4], Box 3, PQ—Procurement, Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials. SBA achieved $22 million in loans during 1970 and $66 million in 1971. Memo, Kleppe to Stans, 2 July 1971, folder: Minority Business Enterprise July, box 54, Commerce Files, Stans Papers.

129 Memo, Melvin Laird to Sandoval, 2 Sept. 1970, folder: [Ex] PQ 8/1/70-10/31/70 [3 of 3], box 2, PQ—Procurement, Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

130 Memo (plus attachment), Sandoval to Ehrlichman, 10 Dec. 1970, folder: EX PQ 2 [1/1/71-3/31/71] [1 of 2], box 2, PQ—Procurement, Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

131 Letter, Ehrlichman to Sam Wyly, 1 Oct. 1970, folder: [Ex] PQ 8/1/70-10/31/70 [3 of 3], box 2, PQ—Procurement, Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

132 Memo, Shultz to Ehrlichman, 13 Jan. 1971, folder: [Ex] PQ 2 [1/1/71-3/31/71] [1 of 2], box 2, PQ—Procurement, Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials. SBA did not receive the funds, however, until Aug. of 1971. Memo, Anthony C. Chase to Bradley H. Patterson, Jr., 31 Aug. 1971, folder: Minority Business—8(a) Procurement, box 137, Leonard Garment Files, Staff Member and Office Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

133 Memo, Theodore H. Elliott to Henry A. Kissinger, 21 Nov. 1970, folder: Ex PQ 2 11/1/70-12/31/70, box 2, PQ—Procurement, Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

134 Memo, Richard C. Van Dusen to Undersecretaries, 19 Mar. 1970, folder: Jan-June 1970, box 8; Draft Memorandum to Undersecretaries Group Re: Los Angeles Plan, No Date, folder: Bowman File June 1970-June 1971, box 9, Richard C. Van Dusen Papers, Michigan Historical Collections, Bentley Historical Library.

135 Memo, Dick Dunnell to Van Dusen, 13 Feb. 1970, folder: Los Angeles Plan 1970-1971 (2 of 2), box 27, Subject Files, Richard C. Van Dusen Files, General Records of the Department of Housing and Urban Development, Record Group 207, National Archives.

136 “Los Angeles Minority Building Contractors Plan,” No Date, folder: Los Angeles Plan 1970-1971 (2 of 2), box 27, Van Dusen Subject Files, Record Group 207.

137 Memo, Samuel J. Simmons to Van Dusen, 1 Dec. 1970, folder: Los Angeles Plan 1970-1971 (1 of 2), box 27, Van Dusen Subject Files, Record Group 207. On the resistance of other departments see Memo, Van Dusen to Simmons, 5 May 1970, folder: Jan.-June 1970, box 8, Van Dusen Papers, Bentlev Library and Memo, Arthur Troilo, 17 Mar. 1971, folder: Los Angeles Plan 1970-1971 (1 of 2), box 27, Van Dusen Subject Files, Record Group 207.

138 Note (plus draft memoranda), Simmons to Van Dusen, 23 July 1971, folder: Equal Opportunity PT IV 1971 (3 of 3), box 26, Van Dusen Subject Files, Record Group 207. In Stans' earlier draft of this memorandum, he declined to use the phrase “specific goals” and Simmons got after him for being vague. See Draft Memorandum to Heads of Departments and Agencies, No Date and Memo, Simmons to Stans, 12 Nov. 1970, folder: Minority Enterprise Feb. 1971, box 54, Commerce Files, Stans Papers.

139 Nixon Handwritten Note on Memo, Garment to Nixon, 20 July 1971, folder: HU-2 Equality—Executive 8/1/71-9/30/71, box 3, HU-Human Rights, Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials. Garment had planned a signing ceremony and Simmons was already drafting regulations to implement the order. Memo, John Campbell to Cole, 2 Aug. 1971, folder: HU-2 Equality—Executive 8/1/71-9/30/71, box 3, HU-Human Rights, Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials; Note (plus attached memoranda), Simmons to All Assistant Secretaries General Counsel, 26 July 1971, Folder: Equal Opportunity PT IV 1971 (3 of 3), Box 26, Van Dusen Subject Files, Record Group 207.

140 Kotlowski, Dean J., “Richard Nixon and the Origins of Affirmative Action,” The Historian 60 (Spring 1998): 535CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

141 Robinson, Archie, George Meany and His Times (New York, 1996) 282–92Google Scholar; Graham, Civil Rights Era, 324-25; Parmet, Richard Nixon and His America, 600.

142 Haldeman Diary, 21 July 1971.

143 Letter, Venable to Glen M. Anderson, 21 Jan. 1971, folder: Minority Business Ent. (OMBE), box 54; Letter, J. Strom Thurmond to Stans, 25 Aug. 1970, box 20, Commerce Files, Stans Papers.

144 Memo, Jay I. Leanse to Stans, 13 Jan. 1971, folder: Minority Business Ent. (OMBE), box 54, Commerce Files, Stans Papers.

145 Senate Republican Memo on Minority Business Enterprise, 16 Apr. 1970, folder: Minority Business Enterprise 1969-71, box 130, John Sherman Cooper Papers, Department of Special Collections, Margaret I. King Library, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky.

146 Letter, Ronald Reagan to Stans, 7 May 1971, folder: Minority Business Enterprise—July, box 54, Commerce Files, Stans Papers.

147 “Statement of John G. Tower … Washington, D.C.,” 14 July 1971, folder: Minority Business Enterprise/Jenkins Highlights of OMBE Activities, box 55, Commerce Files, Stans Papers.

148 Stans Handwritten Comment on Memo, Venable to Stans, 24 Mar. 1970, folder: MBE—Mar. 18-31, box 32, Commerce Files, Stans Papers.

149 “Address by Richard C. Van Dusen … Los Angeles, California,” 13 Apr. 1972, folder: Bowman File 1972—Jan. 1-June 30, box 9, Van Dusen Papers, Bentley Library; Memo, Ciro P. Farina to Members of the Interagency Task Force, 28 Dec. 1971, folder: Minority Business—8(a) Procurement, box 137, Garment Files, Nixon Presidential Materials; Memo, Cole to Garment, 17 Aug. 1970, folder: Memoranda—Kenneth R. Cole, Jr. 1969-71, box 1, Garment Papers, Library of Congress; Memo, Robert Brown to Peter G. Peterson, 30 June 1972, folder: [CF] PQ 2 Purchasing—Contracting Procuring [1971-74], box 50, Confidential Files, Special Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

150 “Highlights of Nixon Administration Initiatives in Civil Rights and Related Programs,” Feb. 1974, folder: Civil Rights 1971-74, box 4, Garment Papers, Library of Congress.

151 Letter, Arthur S. Fleming et al., to the President, No Date, folder: CRC Reports: Minorities and Women as Gov. Contractors (1), box 57, Arthur S. Fleming Papers, Eisenhower Library.

152 Memo, Roeser to Stans, 18 June 1969, folder: Minority Business Enterprise 1969, box 68, Commerce Files, Stans Papers.

153 Memo, Stans to Flanigan, 17 Oct. 1969, folder: White House—Oct., box 4; Memo, Murray Wiedenbaum to Capital Development Task Force, folder: Minority Business Interagency Com., box 23, Commerce Files, Stans Papers.

154 Memo, Charls E. Walker to Stans, 26 May 1971, folder: Black Banks I [2 of 5], box 45, Garment Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

155 Garment Notation on Memo, Robert Brown to Henry C. Cashen, 4 Feb. 1970, folder: Feb. 1970, box 2, Garment Files, Nixon Presidential Materials; Memo, Stans to Venable and Pantos, 24 Feb. 1970, folder: MBE Feb. 11-27; and Memo (plus attachment), Venable to Stans, Mar. 5, 1970—both in box 32, Commerce Files, Stans Papers.

156 Memo (plus attachment), Walker and Stans to Nixon, [No Date], folder: Black Banks I [2 of 5], box 45, Garment Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

157 “Blacks Criticize Attacks on Banks,” New York Times, 8 Jan. 1970, 15.

158 Memo, Arthur F. Burns to Garment, 10 Mar. 1970, folder: MBE Mar. 1-17, box 32, Commerce Files, Stans Papers.

159 Letter, Harry F. Byrd, Jr. to Gene Cowan, 19 Oct. 1971, folder: Black Banks II, box 46, Garment Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

160 Department of Commerce News, 2 Oct. 1970, folder: Black Banks II, box 46, Garment Files, Nixon Presidential Materials. Perhaps concerned that like other OMBE goals this one might fall short, Nixon declined to announce it to the public. Memo, Walker to Nixon, 6 July 1971, folder: Black Banks I [2 of 5], box 45, Garment Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

161 Memo, Stans to Leanse, 19 Oct. 1970, folder: MBE-Oct, box 31, Commerce Files, Stans Papers; Letters, F.E. Agnew to Garment, 14 Sept. 1971, Louis K. Eilers to Garment, 10 Sept. 1971, and Robert W. Reneker to Garment, 8 Sept. 1971, folder: Black Banks I [3 of 5], box 45, Garment Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

162 Memo, Venable to Stans, 11 Apr. 1971, folder: Minority Business Enterprise Office of Jan.-Sept. 1971, box 67, Commerce Files, Stans Papers; Memoranda, Garment to Cole, 11 June 1971 and Garment to Patterson, 21 June 1971, folder: Black Banks II, box 46, Garment Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

163 Memo, Walker to Garment, 10 Nov. 1971, folder: Black Banks II, box 46, Garment Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

164 Memo, William E. Simon to Frank Carlucci, 26 Apr. 1973, fiche 4, box 15, William E. Simon Papers, Ford Library.

165 “Minority Business Enterprise: A Timely Opportunity,” No Date, p. 5, folder: Office of Minority Business Enterprise (1), box 2, May Files, Ford Presidential Papers.

166 “Highlights of the Nixon Administration Initiatives in Civil Rights and Related Programs”, Feb. 1974, folder: Civil Rights 1971-74, box 4, Garment Papers, Library of Congress; Memo, Brown to Cashen, 4 Feb. 1970, folder: Feb. 1970, box 2, Garment Files, Nixon Presidential Materials; Memo, Stans to Venable and Pantos, 24 Feb. 1970, folder: MBE Feb. 11-27; and Memo (plus attachment), Venable to Stans, 5 Mar. 1970—both in box 32, Commerce Files, Stans Papers.

167 Memo, Ehrlichman to Stans, Sam Wyly, Garment, and Andrew House, 17 Aug. 1970, folder: HU-2 Equality—Executive 8/1/70-10/31/70, box 3, HU-Human Rights, Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

168 “Nixon Panel to Ask Firm Commitment to Economic Opportunities for Minorities,” New York Times, 21 Feb. 1971, folder: Minority Business Enterprise Office of Jan-Sept 1971, box 67, Commerce Files, Stans Papers.

169 Minutes of the National Advisory Council on Minority Business Enterprise, 16 Nov. 1970, folder: National Advisory on Minority Business Enterprise May-Dec, box 23, Commerce Files, Stans Papers.

170 Memo, Patterson to Garment, “Notes from the First Term,” 28 Nov. 1973, 5, folder: Memoranda—Incoming Memoranda (to Garment) 1969-73, box 1, Garment Papers, Library of Congress.

171 Memo (plus attachments), Stans to Nixon, 17 Dec. 1970, folder: ExFG 21-17 Office Minority Business Enterprise [1 of 2], box 7, FG 21—Department of Commerce, Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

172 Memo, Ehrlichman to Cole, 24 Nov. 1970, folder: Ehrlichman Chronological File [5 Oct. 1970-24 Nov. 1970] [4 of 4], box 54, John D. Ehrlichman Files, Special Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

173 Memo, Stans to Garment, 22 Jan. 1971, folder: White House—Jan., box 41, Commerce Files, Stans Papers.

174 “Special Message to Congress Urging Expansion of the Minority Business Enterprise Program,“ 13 Oct. 1971, Public Papers of the Presidents: Nixon (1971), 1041-46.

175 Memo, Stans to Nixon, 21 July 1971, PNWH, 6:A, Fiche 173; Memo (plus attachments), Lawrence Imhoff to Stans, 9 June 1969, folder: Minority Business Enterprise June 1971, box 54, Commerce Files, Stans Papers.

176 Nixon Handwritten Comment on Memo, Shultz to Nixon, 17 Sept. 1971, PNWH, 6:A, Fiche 173.

177 The Congressional Black Caucus had wanted $50 million. The administration favored $60 million. Memo, Shultz to Nixon, 17 Sept. 1971, PNWH, 6:A, Fiche 173. Although Senator John McClellan questioned the wisdom of the program and attempted to hold up the 1971 supplemental budget request, staffers were able to allay his concerns. See Memo, Larry Jobe to Stans, 2 June 1971, folder: Minority Business Enterprise Office of Jan.-Sept. 1971, box 67, Commerce Files, Stans Papers.

178 Congressional Quarterly, Nixon: The Fourth Year of His Presidency (Washington, D.C., 1973), 46-A and 47–AGoogle Scholar; “MESBICs: Comforted by Legislative Bandages, the Program May Yet Recover,” Black Enterprise, Jan. 1973, 19-22.

179 There is evidence that departments became more responsive to OMBE's wishes after the president expanded its coordination functions. See Memoranda, James T. Lynn to Laurence H. Silberman, 29 June 1972, Silberman to Lynn, 11 and 18 July 1972, and Lynn to Silberman, 5 Sept. 1972, folder 11, box 17, Laurence H. Silberman Papers, Hoover Institution Archives.

180 Minority Business Development Agency, Questions and Answers About MBDA's Business Assistance to Minority Entrepreneurs (Washington, D.C., 1993), 1–3Google Scholar.

181 Memoranda, Frederic V. Malek to Robert Brown et al., 3 Mar. 1972 and Cole to Malek, 29 Feb. 1972, folder: ExFG 21-17 Office of Minority Business Enterprise [2 of 2], box 7, FG 21—Department of Commerce, Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials; “Aid to Minority Business a Lever for Nixon in '72,” New York Times, 18 Nov. 1972, 70.

182 Memo, Brown to Nate Bayer, 6 Oct. 1972, folder: [CF] PQ 2 Purchasing Contracting Procuring [1971-74], Box 50, Confidential Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

183 Parment, Richard Nixon and His America, 601.

184 Memo, Hullin to Ehrlichman, 26 Jan. 1973, folder: 2 Jan. 1973-31 Jan. 1973 [5 of 5], box 5, Ehrlichman Files, Contested Documents File, Nixon Presidential Materials.

185 Memorandum by Donald Carruth, President, American Eagle Foundation, No Date [Sept. 1973], folder: Sept.—Len Garment, box 1, Alexander M. Haig, Jr. Files, Contested Documents File, Nixon Presidential Materials.

186 Memo, Kleppe to Henry M. Paulson, 27 Sept. 1973, folder: Oct.—Len Garment, box 1, Haig Files, Contested Documents File, Nixon Presidential Materials.

187 Memorandum by Donald Carruth, President, American Eagle Foundation, n.d. [Sept. 1973], folder: Sept.—Len Garment; Memo, Kleppe to Henry M. Paulson, 27 Sept. 1973, folder: Oct.—Len Garment, box 1, Haig Files, Contested Documents File, Nixon Presidential Materials.

188 Bean, Beyond the Broker State, 147.

189 Quoted in Parment, Richard Nixon and His America, 601.

190 On women see Letter, Fleming et al. to the President, No Date, folder: CRC Reports: Minorities and Women as Gov. Contractors (1), box 57, Fleming Papers. For the views of business leaders see Memo, May to Cole, 17 Sept. 1974, folder: Office of Minority Business Enterprise (3), box 2, May Files, Ford Presidential Papers.

191 Memo, May to John Calhoun, 7 Nov. 1974, folder: Minority Business Program, box 32, May Files, Ford Presidential Papers.

192 Memo, Ford to Secretary of State, et al., 11 Dec. 1974, folder: Office of Minority Business Enterprise (4), box 2, May Files, Ford Presidential Papers.

193 News Clipping, “Minority Business Programs Seek to Resist Recession, Infighting,” n.d., folder: Office of Minority Business Enterprise (3), box 2, May Files, Ford Presidential Papers.

194 Whitaker, John C., “Nixon's Domestic Policy: Both Liberal and Bold in Retrospect,” Presidential Studies Quarterly 26 (Winter 1996): 143Google Scholar.

195 Stans, Maurice H., “Nixon and His Bridges to Human Dignity,” Presidential Studies Quarterly 26 (Winter 1996), 181–83Google Scholar.

196 Whitaker, “Nixon's Domestic Policy,” 143.

197 LaNoue, “Social Science and Minority ‘Set-Asides,’” 51.

198 LaNoue, “Split Visions: Minority Business Set-Asides,” 106.

199 LaNoue, “Social Science and Minority ‘Set-Asides,’” 50. Drake and Holsworth focus upon the Richmond's set-asides impact on African Americans. See also Affirmative Action and the Stalled Quest for Black Progress, 70-114.

200 Quoted in LaNoue, “Social Science and Minority ‘Set-Asides,’” 50.

201 “$4 Billion Worth of Temptation,” Time, 15 June 1987, 20.

202 “Minority Entrepreneurship Program Faulted in Study,” Wall Street Journal, 21 Apr. 1995, B2.

203 “On Their Own: For Minority-Owned Firms, The Federal Government's 8(a) Program Can Be Too Much of a Good Thing,” Wall Street Journal, 21 May 1995, R23.

204 “$4 Billion Worth of Temptation,” Time, 15 June 1987, 20.

205 Graham, “Richard Nixon and Civil Rights,” 102-03; “Clinton Outlines a Position on Affirmative Action,” New York Times, 10 Mar. 1996, 2 (“Week in Review” section).

206 Whitaker, “Nixon's Domestic Policy,” 143.

207 Stans, “Nixon and His Bridges to Human Dignity,” 181.

208 Hoff, Nixon Reconsidered, 97; Whitaker, “Nixon's Domestic Policy,” 143.

209 Graham, “Richard Nixon and Civil Rights,” 105 (n. 19); Unger, Irwin, The Best of Intentions: The Triumphs and Failures of the Great Society Under Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon (New York, 1996), 343–45Google Scholar.

210 Drake and Holsworth, Affirmative Action and the Stalled Quest, 100.

211 Woodard, Michael D., Black Entrepreneurs in America: Stories of Struggle and Success (New Brunswick, N.J., 1997), 33Google Scholar.

212 Handy, John W., An Analysis of Black Business Enterprises (New York, 1989), 62–64Google Scholar.

213 Woodard, Black Entrepreneurs in America, 241.

214 Memo, Stans to Nixon, 15 Apr. 1970, folder: MBE Apr. 15 to Apr. 30, box 32, Commerce Files, Stans Papers.

215 “Remarks by Richard C. Van Dusen … at Los Angeles,” 13 Apr. 1972, folder: Bowman File 1972—Jan. 1-June 30, box 9, Van Dusen Papers, Bentley Library; Memo, Stans to Nixon, 28 Mar. 1972, folder: ExFG 21-17 Office of Minority Business Enterprise [2 of 2], box 7, FG 21, Department of Commerce, Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials; Stans, One of the President's Men, 175-76.

216 “Minority Business Programs Seek to Resist Recession, Infighting,” No Date, folder: Office of Minority Business Enterprise (3), box 2, May Files, Ford Presidential Papers.

217 “GM Makes Bold Move to Help Blacks Gain Economic Power,” Jet, 24 Feb. 1971, 20-25; “Black Businesses Map Strategies to Meet Economic Challenges,” Jet, 27 Sept. 1971, 46-50; “The Black Middle Class,” Ebony (Aug. 1973): 32-179.

218 “Jesse L. Jackson,” in Political Profiles: The Nixon/Ford Years, ed. Schoenebaum, Eleanora W. (New York, 1979), 325–26Google Scholar.

219 “The Jeffersons,” in Blacks in American Films and Television: An Encyclopedia, ed. Bogle, Donald (New York, 1988), 282–84Google Scholar.

220 Stans, “Nixon and His Bridges to Human Dignity,” 180.

221 Letter, Nixon to Anthony Maxwell, 31 Oct. 1972, folder: ExFG 21-17 Office of Minority Business Enterprise [2 of 2], box 7, FG 21—Department of Commerce, Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.