Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dsjbd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T16:15:05.507Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Top Management Team Characteristics and Organizational Virtue Orientation: An Empirical Examination of IPO Firms

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 June 2018

Robert E. Evert
Affiliation:
U.S. Air Force Academy
G. Tyge Payne
Affiliation:
Texas Tech University
Curt B. Moore
Affiliation:
Oklahoma State University
Michael S. McLeod
Affiliation:
Wichita State University

Abstract:

Despite extensive research on organizational virtue, our understanding about factors that promote virtue within organizations remains unclear. Drawing on upper echelon theory, we examine the relationship between five top management team (TMT) characteristics and organizational virtue orientation (OVO)—the integrated set of values and beliefs that support ethical traits and virtuous behaviors of an organization. Specifically, we utilize prospectuses of initial public offering (IPO) firms and 10-K post-IPO filings to explore how TMT composition with respect to member age, tenure, education, functional background, and gender influences OVO. Additionally, we examine the moderating effects of organizational size, and argue that the more expansive structures and processes associated with larger organizations diminish the main relationships. Our findings, using two sources of data, are consistent, but somewhat mixed in their support for our hypotheses. Overall, TMT characteristics do appear to influence OVO, but in more complex and counterintuitive ways than initially expected.

Type
Article
Copyright
Copyright © Society for Business Ethics 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Baker, T. L., Hunt, T. G., & Andrews, M. C. 2006. Promoting ethical behavior and organizational citizenship behaviors: The influence of corporate ethical values. Journal of Business Research, 59(7): 849857.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bantel, K. A., & Jackson, S. E. 1989. Top management and innovations in banking: Does the composition of the top team make a difference? Strategic Management Journal, 10(S1): 107124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barker, V. L. III, & Mueller, G. C. 2002. CEO characteristics and firm R&D spending. Management Science, 48(6): 782801.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beckman, C. M., & Burton, M. D. 2011. Bringing organizational demography back in: Time, change and structure in top management team research. In Carpenter, M. (Ed.), Handbook of top management team research: 49 70. Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar.Google Scholar
Bell, R. G., Moore, C. B., & Al-Shammari, H. A. 2008. Country of origin and foreign IPO legitimacy: Understanding the role of geographic scope and insider ownership. Entrepreneurship Theory & Practice, 32(1): 185202.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bezrukova, K., Jehn, K. A., Zanutto, E. L., & Thatcher, S. M. 2009. Do workgroup faultlines help or hurt? A moderated model of faultlines, team identification, and group performance. Organization Science, 20(1): 3550.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blau, P. M. 1977. Inequality and heterogeneity: A primitive theory of social structure. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Bligh, M. C., Kohles, J. C., & Meindl, J. R. 2004. Charisma under crisis: Presidential leadership, rhetoric, and media responses before and after the September 11th terrorist attacks. The Leadership Quarterly, 15(2): 211239.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boone, C., & Hendriks, W. 2009. Top management team diversity and firm performance. Moderators of functional-background and locus-of-control diversity. Management Science, 55(2): 165180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowman, E. H. 1984. Content analysis of annual reports for corporate strategy and risk. Interfaces, 14(1): 6171.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bright, D. S., Cameron, K. S., & Caza, A. 2006. The amplifying and buffering effects of virtuousness in downsized organizations. Journal of Business Ethics, 64(3): 249269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bromiley, P., & Harris, J. D. 2014. A comparison of alternative measures of organizational aspirations. Strategic Management Journal, 35(3): 338357.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brouthers, K. D., Brouthers, L. E., & Werner, S. 2000. Influences on strategic decision-making in the Dutch financial services industry. Journal of Management, 26(5): 863883.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bryant, P. T. 2014. Imprinting by design: The microfoundations of entrepreneurial adaptation. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 38(5): 10811102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cameron, K. S., Bright, D., & Caza, A. 2004. Exploring the relationships between organizational virtuousness and performance. American Behavioral Scientist, 47(6): 766790.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cameron, K. S., & Winn, B. 2012. Virtuousness in organizations. In Cameron, K. S. & Spreitzer, G. M. (Eds.), Oxford handbook of positive organizational scholarship: 231243. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Cannella, A. A., & Holcomb, T. R. 2005. A multilevel analysis of the upper-echelons model. In Dansereau, A. & Yammarino, F. J. (Eds.), Research in multilevel issues: 197237. Oxford, UK: Elsevier Ltd.Google Scholar
Cannella, A. A., Park, J. H., & Lee, H. U. 2008. Top management team functional background diversity and firm performance: Examining the roles of team member colocation and environmental uncertainty. Academy of Management Journal, 51(4): 768784.Google Scholar
Carley, K. M. 1997. Extracting team mental models through textual analysis. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18(1): 533558.3.3.CO;2-V>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carmeli, A., Schaubroeck, J., & Tishler, A. 2011. How CEO empowering leadership shapes top management team processes: Implications for firm performance. The Leadership Quarterly, 22(2): 399411.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carpenter, M. A., Geletkanycz, M. A., & Sanders, W. G. 2004. Upper echelons research revisited: Antecedents, elements, and consequences of top management team composition. Journal of Management, 30(6): 749778.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carter, R., & Manaster, S. 1990. Initial public offerings and underwriter reputation. Journal of Finance, 45(4): 10451067.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caza, A., Barker, B. A., & Cameron, K. S. 2004. Ethics and ethos: The buffering and amplifying effects of ethical behavior and virtuousness. Journal of Business Ethics, 52(2): 169178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Certo, S. T., Daily, C. M., Cannella, A. A., & Dalton, D. R. 2003. Giving money to get money: How CEO stock options and CEO equity enhance IPO valuations. Academy of Management Journal, 46(5): 643653.Google Scholar
Certo, S. T., Daily, C. M., & Dalton, D. R. 2001. Signaling firm value through board structure: An investigation of initial public offerings. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 26(2): 3350.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Certo, S. T., Lester, R. H., Dalton, C. M., & Dalton, D. R. 2006. Top management teams, strategy and financial performance: A meta-analytic examination. Journal of Management Studies, 43(4): 813839.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chatman, J. A., & Flynn, F. J. 2001. The influence of demographic heterogeneity on the emergence and consequences of cooperative norms in work teams. Academy of Management Journal, 44(5): 956974.Google Scholar
Chin, M. K., Hambrick, D. C., & Treviño, L. K. 2013. Political ideologies of CEOs: The influence of executives’ values on corporate social responsibility. Administrative Science Quarterly, 58(2): 197232.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chun, R. 2005. Ethical character and virtue of organizations: An empirical assessment and strategic implications. Journal of Business Ethics, 57(3): 269284.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clarkson, P. M., Kao, J. L., & Richardson, G. D. 1999. Evidence that management discussion and analysis (MD&A) is a part of a firm's overall disclosure package. Contemporary Accounting Research, 16(1): 111134.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, J. 1960. A coefficient of agreement for nominal scales. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 20: 3746.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daily, C. M., Certo, S. T., & Dalton, D. R. 2005. Investment bankers and IPO pricing: Does prospectus information matter? Journal of Business Venturing, 20(1): 93111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daily, C. M., McDougall, P. P., Covin, J. G., & Dalton, D. R. 2002. Governance and strategic leadership in entrepreneurial firms. Journal of Management, 28(3): 387412.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Datta, S., & Iskandar-Datta, M. 2014. Upper-echelon executive human capital and compensation: Generalist vs specialist skills. Strategic Management Journal, 35(12): 18531866.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
D'Aveni, R. A., & MacMillan, I. C. 1990. Crisis and the content of managerial communications: A study of the focus of attention of top managers in surviving and failing firms. Administrative Science Quarterly, 35(4): 634657.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deshpande, R., & Webster, F. E. 1989. Organizational culture and marketing: Defining the research agenda. Journal of Marketing, 53(1): 315.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Vries, B., & Walker, L. J. 1986. Moral reasoning and attitudes toward capital punishment. Developmental Psychology, 22(4): 509513.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dyer, W. G. 1986. Culture change in family firms: Anticipating and managing business and family transitions. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
Evans, R. W., & Butler, F. C. 2011. An upper echelons view of “Good to Great”: Principles for behavioral integration in the top management team. Journal of Leadership Studies, 5(2): 8997.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fernandez-Feijoo, B., Romero, S., & Ruiz, S. 2012. Does board gender composition affect corporate social responsibility reporting? International Journal of Business and Social Science, 3(1): 3138.Google Scholar
Finkelstein, S., & Hambrick, D. C. 1990. Top-management-team tenure and organizational outcomes: The moderating role of managerial discretion. Administrative Science Quarterly, 35(3): 484503.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Finkelstein, S., & Hambrick, D. C. 1996. Strategic leadership: Top executives and their effects on organizations. New York: West Publishing Company.Google Scholar
Finkelstein, S., Hambrick, D. C., & Cannella, A. A. 2009. Strategic leadership: Theory and research on executives, top management teams, and boards. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Finney, H., & Lesieur, H. R. 1982. A contingency theory of organizational crime. In Bacharach, S. B. (Ed.), Research in the sociology of organizations: 255299. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.Google Scholar
Fischer, H. M., & Pollock, T. G. 2004. Effects of social capital and power on surviving transformational change: The case of initial public offerings. Academy of Management Journal, 47(4): 463481.Google Scholar
Gibson, C., & Vermeulen, F. 2003. A healthy divide: Subgroups as a stimulus for team learning behavior. Administrative Science Quarterly, 48(2): 202239.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gioia, D. A., Schultz, M., & Corley, K. G. 2000. Organizational identity, image, and adaptive instability. Academy of Management Review, 25(1): 6381.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gottfredson, M. R., & Hirschi, T. 1990. A general theory of crime. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Gulati, R., & Higgins, M. C. 2003. Which ties matter when? The contingent effects of interorganizational partnerships on IPO success. Strategic Management Journal, 24(2): 127144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gupta, A., Briscoe, F., & Hambrick, D. C. 2017. Red, blue, and purple firms: Organizational political ideology and corporate social responsibility. Strategic Management Journal, 38(5): 10181040.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hambrick, D. C. 1989. Guest editor's introduction: Putting top managers back in the strategy picture. Strategic Management Journal, 10(S1): 515.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hambrick, D. C. 1994. Top management groups: A conceptual integration and reconsideration of the “team” label. In Staw, B. M. & Cummings, L. L. (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior: 171213. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.Google Scholar
Hambrick, D. C. 2007. Upper echelons theory: An update. Academy of Management Review, 32(2): 334343.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hambrick, D. C., Humphrey, S. E., & Gupta, A. 2015. Structural interdependence within top management teams: A key moderator of upper echelons predictions. Strategic Management Journal, 36(3): 449461.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hambrick, D. C., & Mason, P. A. 1984. Upper echelons: The organization as a reflection of its top managers. Academy of Management Review, 9(2): 193206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hannan, M. T., & Freeman, J. 1984. Structural inertia and organizational change. American Sociological Review, 49(2): 149164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hanley, K. W., & Hoberg, G. 2010. The information content of IPO prospectuses. Review of Financial Studies, 23(7): 28212864.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hartman, E. M. 2006. Can we teach character? An Aristotelian answer. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 5(1): 6881.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heavey, C., & Simsek, Z. 2017. Distributed cognition in top management teams and organizational ambidexterity: The influence of transactive memory systems. Journal of Management, 43(3): 919945.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heugens, P. P. M. A. R., Kaptein, M., & van Oosterhout, J. 2008. Contracts to communities: A processual model of organizational virtue. Journal of Management Studies, 45(1): 100121.Google Scholar
Hillman, A. J., Shropshire, C., & Cannella, A. A. 2007. Organizational predictors of women on corporate boards. Academy of Management Journal, 50(4): 941952.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hitt, M. A., & Tyler, B. B. 1991. Strategic decision models: Integrating different perspectives. Strategic Management Journal, 12(5): 327351.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holland, J. L. 1973. Making vocational choices: A theory of careers. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Hunt, S. D., Wood, V. R., & Chonko, L. B. 1989. Corporate ethical values and organizational commitment in marketing. Journal of Marketing, 53(3): 7990.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ireland, R. D., Hitt, M. A., Bettis, R. A., Porras, D., & Auld, D. 1987. Strategy formulation processes: Differences in perceptions of strength and weaknesses indicators and environmental uncertainty by managerial level. Strategic Management Journal, 8(5): 469485.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jain, B. A., Jayaraman, N., & Kini, O. 2008. The path-to-profitability of internet IPO firms. Journal of Business Venturing, 23(2): 165194.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jaccard, J., & Turrisi, R. 2003. Interaction effects in multiple regression. Newbury Park: Sage.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jin, K. G., & Drozdenko, R. G. 2010. Relationships among perceived organizational core values, corporate social responsibility, ethics, and organizational performance outcomes: An empirical study of information technology professionals. Journal of Business Ethics, 92(3): 341359.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, V. 2007. What is organizational imprinting? Cultural entrepreneurship in the founding of the Paris opera. American Journal of Sociology, 113(1): 97127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaptein, M. 2009. Ethics programs and ethical culture: A next step in unraveling their multi-faceted relationship. Journal of Business Ethics, 89(2): 261281.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kelly, D., & Amburgey, T. L. 1991. Organizational inertia and momentum: A dynamic model of strategic change. Academy of Management Journal, 34(3): 591612.Google Scholar
Kenney, M., & Patton, D. 2015. Gender, ethnicity and entrepreneurship in initial public offerings: Illustrations from an open database. Research Policy, 44(9): 17731784.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koene, B. A., Vogelaar, A. L., & Soeters, J. L. 2002. Leadership effects on organizational climate and financial performance: Local leadership effect in chain organizations. The Leadership Quarterly, 13(3): 193215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krishnan, H. A., & Park, D. 2005. A few good women – on top management teams. Journal of Business Research, 58(12): 17121720.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lämsä, A. M., Vehkaperä, M., Puttonen, T., & Pesonen, H. L. 2008. Effect of business education on women and men students’ attitudes on corporate responsibility in society. Journal of Business Ethics, 82(1): 4558.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Landis, J. R., & Koch, G. G. 1977. The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics, 33(1): 159174.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ling, Y., & Kellermanns, F. W. 2010. The effects of family firm specific sources of TMT diversity: The moderating role of information exchange frequency. Journal of Management Studies, 47(2): 322344.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ling, Y. A. N., Simsek, Z., Lubatkin, M. H., & Veiga, J. F. 2008. Transformational leadership's role in promoting corporate entrepreneurship: Examining the CEO-TMT interface. Academy of Management Journal, 51(3): 557576.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Linley, P. A., Maltby, J., Wood, A. M., Joseph, S., Harrington, S., Peterson, C., Park, N., & Seligman, M. E. P. 2007. Character strengths in the United Kingdom: The VIA inventory of strengths. Personality and Individual Differences, 43(2): 341351.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loughran, T., & McDonald, B. 2011. When is a liability not a liability? Textual analysis, dictionaries, and 10-Ks. Journal of Finance, 66(1): 3565.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lyngsie, J., & Foss, N. J. 2017. The more, the merrier? Women in top-management teams and entrepreneurship in established firms. Strategic Management Journal, 38(3): 487505.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martens, M. L., Jennings, J. E., & Jennings, P. D. 2007. Do the stories they tell get them the money they need? The role of entrepreneurial narratives in resource acquisition. Academy of Management Journal, 50(5): 11071132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mayer, D. M., Kuenzi, M., Greenbaum, R., Bardes, M., & Salvador, R. B. 2009. How low does ethical leadership flow? Test of a trickle-down model. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 108(1): 113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLeod, M. S., Moore, C. B., Payne, G. T., Sexton, J. C., & Evert, R. E. 2018. Organizational virtue and stakeholder interdependence: An empirical examination of financial intermediaries and IPO firms. Journal of Business Ethics, 149(4): 785798.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLeod, M. S., Payne, G. T., & Evert, R. E. 2016. Organizational ethics research: A systematic review of methods and analytical techniques. Journal of Business Ethics, 134(3): 429443.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meglino, B. M., Ravlin, E. C., & Adkins, C. L. 1989. A work values approach to corporate culture: A field test of the value congruence process and its relationship to individual outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74(3): 424432.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Michel, J. G., & Hambrick, D. C. 1992. Diversification posture and top management team characteristics. Academy of Management Journal, 35(1): 937.Google Scholar
Moberg, D. J. 1999. The big five and organizational virtue. Business Ethics Quarterly, 9(2): 245272.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moore, C. B., Bell, R., Filatotchev, I., & Rasheed, A. A. 2012. Foreign IPO capital market choice: Understanding the institutional fit of corporate governance. Strategic Management Journal, 33(8): 914937.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moore, G. 2008. Re-imagining the morality of management: A modern virtue ethics approach. Business Ethics Quarterly, 18(4): 483511.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moore, G., & Beadle, R. 2006. In search of organizational virtue in business: Agents, goods, practices, institutions and environments. Organization Studies, 27(3): 369389.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morris, M. H., Schindehutte, M., Walton, J., & Allen, J. 2002. The ethical context of entrepreneurship: Proposing and testing a developmental framework. Journal of Business Ethics, 40(4): 331361.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moss, T. W., Short, J. C., Payne, G. T., & Lumpkin, G. T. 2010. Dual identities in social ventures: An exploratory study. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 35(4): 805830.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murphy, P. E. 1999. Character and virtue ethics in international marketing: An agenda for managers, researchers, and educators. Journal of Business Ethics, 18(1): 107124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nahavandi, A., & Malekzadeh, A. R. 1993. Leader style in strategy and organizational performance: An integrative framework. Journal of Management Studies, 30(3): 405425.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nelson, T. 2003. The persistence of founder influence: Management, ownership, and performance effects at initial public offering. Strategic Management Journal, 24(8): 707724.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neter, J., Wasserman, W., & Kutner, M. H. 1990. Applied linear statistical models (3rd ed.). Homewood, IL: Irwin.Google Scholar
Nielsen, B. B., & Nielsen, S. 2011. The role of top management team international orientation in international strategic decision-making: The choice of foreign entry mode. Journal of World Business, 46(2): 185193.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Osborne, J. D., Stubbart, C. I., & Ramaprasad, A. 2001. Strategic groups and competitive enactment: A study of dynamic relationships between mental models and performance. Strategic Management Journal, 22(5): 435454.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ozer, M. 2010. Top management teams and corporate political activity: Do top management teams have influence on corporate political activity?. Journal of Business Research, 63(11): 11961201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Payne, G. T., Benson, G. S., & Finegold, D. 2009. Corporate board attributes, team effectiveness, and financial performance. Journal of Management Studies, 46(4): 704731.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Payne, G. T., Brigham, K. H., Broberg, J. C., Moss, T. W., & Short, J. C. 2011. Organizational virtue orientation and family firms. Business Ethics Quarterly, 21(2): 257285.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Payne, G. T., Moore, C. B., Bell, R. G., & Zachary, M. A. 2013. Signaling organizational virtue: An examination of virtue rhetoric, country-level corruption and performance of foreign IPOs from emerging and developed economies. Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal, 7(3): 230251.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pearsall, M. J., Ellis, A. P., & Evans, J. M. 2008. Unlocking the effects of gender faultlines on team creativity: Is activation the key?. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(1): 225234.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peterson, C., & Park, N. 2006. Character strengths in organizations. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 27(8): 11491154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. 2003. Character strengths before and after September 11. Psychological Science, 14(4): 381384.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. 2004. Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Pfeffer, J. 1981. Power in organizations. Marshfield, MA: Pitman.Google Scholar
Preacher, K. J., Curran, P. J., & Bauer, D. J. 2006. Computational tools for probing interactions in multiple linear regression, multilevel modeling, and latent curve analysis. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 31(4): 437448.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rest, J. R., & Thoma, S. J. 1986. Relation of moral judgment development to formal education. Developmental Psychology, 21(4): 709714.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Richard, O. C., & Shelor, R. M. 2002. Linking top management team age heterogeneity to firm performance: Juxtaposing two mid-range theories. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 13(6): 958974.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ridge, J. W., & Ingram, A. 2017. Modesty in the top management team: Investor reaction and performance implications. Journal of Management, 43(4): 12831306.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sarros, J. C., Cooper, B. K., & Hartican, A. M. 2006. Leadership and character. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 27(8): 682699.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schroeder, D. 2002. Ethics from the top: Top management and ethical business. Business Ethics: A European Review, 11(3): 260267.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seligman, M. E. P., Steen, T. A., Park, N., & Peterson, C. 2005. Positive psychology progress: Empirical validation of interventions. American Psychologist, 60(5): 410421.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Singh, J. V. 1990. Organizational evolution: New directions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Solomon, R. C. 1992. Corporate roles, personal virtues: An Aristotelian approach to business ethics. Business Ethics Quarterly, 2(3): 317339.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sosik, J. J., Gentry, W. A., & Chun, J. U. 2012. The value of virtue in the upper echelons: A multisource examination of executive character strengths and performance. The Leadership Quarterly, 23(3): 367382.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sosik, J. J., Juzbasich, J., & Chun, J. U. 2011. Effects of moral reasoning and management level on ratings of charismatic leadership, in-role and extra-role performance of managers: A multi-source examination. The Leadership Quarterly, 22(2): 434450.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Srivastava, A., & Lee, H. 2005. Predicting order and timing of new product moves: The role of top management in corporate entrepreneurship. Journal of Business Venturing, 20(4): 459481.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. 1996. Using multivariate statistics. New York: Harper Collins.Google Scholar
Taylor, R. N. 1975. Age and experience as determinants of managerial information processing and decision making performance. Academy of Management Journal, 18(1): 7481.Google Scholar
Tetlock, P. E., Peterson, R., & Lerner, J. 1996. Revising the value pluralism model: Incorporating social content and context postulates. In Seligman, C., Olson, J., & Zanna, M. (Eds.), The psychology of values: The Ontario symposium: 2551. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Tihanyi, L., Ellstrand, A. E., Daily, C. M., & Dalton, D. R. 2000. Composition of the top management team and firm international diversification. Journal of Management, 26(6): 11571177.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tsui, A. S., Pearce, J. L., Porter, L. W., & Tripoli, A. M. 1997. Alternative approaches to the employee-organization relationship: Does investment in employees pay off? Academy of Management Journal, 40(5): 10891121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tsui, A. S., Zhang, Z. X., Wang, H., Xin, K. R., & Wu, J. B. 2006. Unpacking the relationship between CEO leadership behavior and organizational culture. The Leadership Quarterly, 17(2): 113137.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tushman, M. L., & Romanelli, E. 1985. Organizational evolution: A metamorphosis model of convergence and reorientation. In Cummings, L. L. & Staw, B. M. (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior: 171222. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.Google Scholar
Vaccaro, I. G., Jansen, J. P., Van Den Bosch, F. J., & Volberda, H. W. 2012. Management innovation and leadership: The moderating role of organizational size. Journal of Management Studies, 49(1): 2851.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waddock, S. A., & Graves, S. B. 1997. The corporate social performance-financial performance link. Strategic Management Journal, 18(4): 303319.3.0.CO;2-G>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wally, S., & Baum, J. R. 1994. Personal and structural determinants of the pace of strategic decision making. Academy of Management Journal, 37(4): 932956.Google Scholar
Walters, B. A., Kroll, M. J., & Wright, P. 2007. CEO tenure, boards of directors, and acquisition performance. Journal of Business Research, 60(4): 331338.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wang, G., Holmes, R. M., Oh, I. S., & Zhu, W. 2016. Do CEOs matter to firm strategic actions and firm performance? A meta-analytic investigation based on Upper Echelons Theory. Personnel Psychology, 69(4): 775862.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Welbourne, T. M., Cycyota, C. S., & Ferrante, C. J. 2007. Wall Street reaction to women in IPOs: An examination of gender diversity in top management teams. Group & Organization Management, 32(5): 524547.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wells, W. D. 1975. Psychographics: A critical review. Journal of Marketing Research, 12: 196213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Westphal, J. D., & Fredrickson, J. W. 2001. Who directs strategic change? Director experience, the selection of new CEOs, and change in corporate strategy. Strategic Management Journal, 22(12): 11131137.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whetten, D. A. 2006. Albert and Whetten revisited: Strengthening the concept of organizational identity. Journal of Management Inquiry, 15(3): 219234.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wiersema, M. F., & Bantel, K. A. 1992. Top management team demography and corporate strategic change. Academy of Management Journal, 35(1): 91121.Google Scholar
Wong, E. M., Ormiston, M. E., & Tetlock, P. E. 2011. The effects of top management team integrative complexity and decentralized decision making on corporate social performance. Academy of Management Journal, 54(6): 12071228.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wright, T. A., & Goodstein, J. 2007. Character is not “dead” in management research: A review of individual character and organizational-level virtue. Journal of Management, 33(6): 928958.CrossRefGoogle Scholar