Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-l4dxg Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-13T09:57:02.176Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Ethical and Unethical Leadership: Exploring New Avenues for Future Research

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 January 2015

Michael E. Brown  and
Marie S. Mitchell
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract:

The purpose of this article is to review literature that is relevant to the social scientific study of ethics and leadership, as well as outline areas for future study. We first discuss ethical leadership and then draw from emerging research on “dark side” organizational behavior to widen the boundaries of the review to include unethical leadership. Next, three emerging trends within the organizational behavior literature are proposed for a leadership and ethics research agenda: 1) emotions, 2) fit/congruence, and 3) identity/identification. We believe each shows promise in extending current thinking. The review closes with discussion of important issues that are relevant to the advancement of research on leadership and ethics.

Type
Business Ethics Quarterly Twentieth Anniversary Forum, Part II: New Directions for Business Ethics Research
Information
Business Ethics Quarterly , Volume 20 , Issue 4 , October 2010 , pp. 583 - 616
Copyright
Copyright © Society for Business Ethics 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Antonakis, J., & Atwater, L. 2002. Leader distance: A review and proposed theory. Leadership Quarterly, 13: 673–704.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aquino, K. F., & Reed, A., II. 2002. The self-importance of moral identity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83: 1423–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aryee, S., Chen, Z. X., Sun, L., & Debrah, Y. A. 2007. Antecedents and outcomes of abusive supervision: Test of a trickle-down model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92: 191–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ashford, S. 1989. Self-assessments in organizations: A literature review and integrative model. Research in Organizational Behavior, 11: 133–74.Google Scholar
Ashforth, B. E. 1994. Petty tyranny in organizations. Human Relations, 47: 755–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ashforth, B. E., & Anand, V. 2003. The normalization of corruption in organizations. Research in Organizational Behavior, 25: 1–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ashforth, B. E., Harrison, S. H., & Corley, K. G. 2008. Identification in organizations: An examination of four fundamental questions. Journal of Management, 34: 325–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ashforth, B. E., & Mael, F. 1989. Social identity theory and the organization. Academy of Management Review, 14: 20–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ashkanasy, N. M., & Tse, B. 2000. Transformational leadership as management of emotion: A conceptual review. In Ashkanasy, N. M.Hartel, C. E. J., & Zerbe, W. J. (Eds.), Emotions in the workplace: Theory, research and practice: 221–35. Westport, CT: Quorum.Google Scholar
Atwater, L. E., Ostroff, C., Yammarino, F. J., & Fleenor, J. W. 1998. Self-other agreement: Does it really matter? Personnel Psychology, 51: 577–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Atwater, L. E., & Yammarino, F. J. 1992. Does self-other agreement on leadership perceptions moderate the validity of leadership and performance predictions? Personnel Psychology, 45: 141–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Avolio, B. J. 1999. Full leadership development: Building the vital forces in organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Avolio, B. J., Walumbwa, F. O., & Weber, T. J. 2009. Leadership: Current theories, research, and future directions. Annual Review of Psychology, 60: 421–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baker, W. E., & Faulkner, R. R. 1993. The social organization of conspiracy: Illegal networks in the heavy electrical equipment industry. American Sociological Review, 58: 837–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bandura, A. 1977. Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84: 191–215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bandura, A. 1986. Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Bandura, A. 1991. Social cognitive theory of moral thought and action. In Kurtines, W. M. & Gewirtz, J. L. (Eds.), Handbook of moral behavior and development. Hillsdale, NJ: LEA.Google Scholar
Barclay, L. J., Skarlicki, D. P., & Pugh, S. D. 2005. Exploring the role of emotions in injustice perceptions and retaliation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90: 629–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bass, B. M. 1985. Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. J. 1993. Improving organizational effectiveness through transformational leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Bass, B. M., & Steidlmeier, P. 1999. Ethics, character, and authentic transformational leadership behavior. Leadership Quarterly, 10: 181–218.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baumeister, R. F. 2001. Ego-depletion, the executive function, and self-control: An energy model of the self in personality. In Roberts, B. W. & Hogan, R. (Eds.), Personality psychology in the workplace: Decade of behavior: 299–316. Washington, DC: APA.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baumeister, R. F., Gailliot, M., DeWall, C. N., & Oaten, M. 2006. Self-regulation and personality: How interventions increase regulatory success, and how depletion moderates the effects on traits on behavior. Journal of Personality, 74: 1773–1801.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baumhart, R. C. 1961. How ethical are businessmen? Harvard Business Review, 39: 6–8.Google Scholar
Blau, P. M. 1964. Exchange and power in social life. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Bliese, P. 2000. Within-group agreement, non-independence, and reliability: Implications for data aggregation and analysis. In Klein, K. J. & Kozlowski, S. W. J. (Eds.), Multilevel theory, research, and methods in organizations: 349–81. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
Bono, J. E., & Ilies, R. 2006. Charisma, positive emotions and mood contagion. Leadership Quarterly, 17: 317–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bouchikhi, H., & Kimberly, J. R. 2003. Escaping the identity trap. MIT Sloan Management Review, 44: 20–26.Google Scholar
Braithwaite, J. 1989. Criminological theory and organizational crime. Justice Quarterly, 6: 333–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brenner, S. N., & Molander, E. A. 1977. Is the ethics of business changing? Harvard Business Review, 55: 57–71.Google Scholar
Brief, A. P., Buttram, R. T., & Dukerich, J. M. 2001. Collective corruption in the corporate world: Toward a process model. In Turner, M. E. (Ed.), Groups at work: Theory and research: 471–99. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Brief, A. P., Dukerich, J. M., & Doran, L. J. 1991. Resolving ethical dilemmas in management: Experimental investigations of values, accountability, and choice. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 21: 380–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, M. E. 2007. Misconceptions of ethical leadership: How to avoid potential pitfalls. Organizational Dynamics, 36: 140–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, M. E., & Treviño, L. K. 2006a. Ethical leadership: A review and future directions. Leadership Quarterly, 17: 595–616.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, M. E., & Treviño, L. K. 2006b. Socialized charismatic leadership, values congruence, and deviance in work groups. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91: 954–62.Google ScholarPubMed
Brown, M. E., & Treviño, L. K. 2009. Leader-follower value congruence: Are socialized charismatic leaders better able to achieve it? Journal of Applied Psychology, 94: 478–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, M. E., Treviño, L. K., & Harrison, D. A. 2005. Ethical leadership: A social learning perspective for construct development and testing. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 97: 117–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burns, J. M. 1978. Leadership. New York: Harper & Row.Google Scholar
Cable, D. M., & Judge, T. A. 1997. Interviewers’ perceptions of person-organization fit and organizational selection decisions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82: 546–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carmeli, A., Gilat, G., & Waldman, D. A. 2007. The role of perceived organizational performance in organizational identification, adjustment and job performance. Journal of Management Studies, 44: 972–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chartrand, T. L., & Bargh, J. A. 1999. The chameleon effect: The perception—behavior link in social interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76: 893–910.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chatman, J. 1991. Matching people and organizations: Selection and socialization in public accounting firms. Administrative Science Quarterly, 36: 459–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ciulla, J. B. (Ed.) 2004. Ethics, the heart of leadership (2nd ed.). Westport, CT: Praeger.Google Scholar
Clement, R. 2006. Just how unethical is American business? Business Horizons, 49: 313–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Colbert, A. E., Kristof-Brown, A. L., Bradley, B. H., & Barrick, M. R. 2008. CEO transformational leadership: The role of goal importance congruence in top management teams. Academy of Management Journal, 51: 81–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conger, J. A. 1999. Charismatic and transformational leadership in organizations: An insider’s perspective on these developing streams of research. Leadership Quarterly, 10: 145–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conger, J. A., & Kanungo, R. N. 1998. Charismatic leadership in organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cropanzano, R., & Mitchell, M. S. 2005. Social exchange theory: An interdisciplinary review. Journal of Management, 31: 874–900.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dansereau, E., Graen, G., & Haga, W. J. 1975. A vertical dyad linkage approach to leadership within formal organizations: A longitudinal investigation of the role making process. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 13: 46–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dasborough, M. T. 2006. Cognitive asymmetry in employee emotional reactions to leadership behaviors. Leadership Quarterly, 17: 163–78.Google Scholar
Dasborough, M. T., Ashkanasy, N. M., Tee, E. Y. J., & Tse, H. H. M. 2009. What goes around comes around: How meso-level negative emotional contagion can ultimately determine organizational attitudes toward leaders. Leadership Quarterly, 20: 571–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Hoogh, A. H. B., & Den Hartog, D. N. 2008. Ethical and despotic leadership, relationships with leader’s social responsibility, top management team effectiveness and subordinates’ optimism: A multi-method study. Leadership Quarterly, 19: 297–311.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Detert, J. R., Treviño, L. K., Burris, E. R., & Andiappan, M. 2007. Managerial modes of influence and counterproductivity in organizations: A longitudinal business-unit-level investigation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92: 993–1005.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Detert, J. R., Treviño, L. K., & Sweitzer, V. L. 2008. Moral disengagement in ethical decision making: A study of antecedents and outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93: 374–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dollard, J., Doob, L. W., Miller, N. E., Mowrer, O. H., & Sears, R. R. 1939. Frustration and aggression. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duffy, M. K., Ganster, D. C., & Pagon, M. 2002. Social undermining in the workplace. Academy of Management Journal, 45: 331–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dukerich, J. M., Kramer, R., & Parks, J. M. 1998. The dark side of organizational identification. In Whetten, D. A. & Godfrey, P. C. (Eds.), Identity in organizations: Building theory through conversations: 245–56. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Edwards, J. R. 2008. Person-environment fit in organizations: An assessment of theoretical progress. Academy of Management Annals, 2: 167–230.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Edwards, J. R., & Cable, D. M. 2009. The value of value congruence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94: 654–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Efraty, D., & Wolfe, D. M. 1988. The effect of organizational identification on employee affective and performance responses. Journal of Business and Psychology, 3: 105–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elsbach, K. D. 1999. An expanded model of organizational identification. Research in Organizational Behavior, 21: 163–200.Google Scholar
Erdogan, B., Kraimer, M. L., & Liden, R. C. 2004. Work value congruence and intrinsic career success: The compensatory roles of leader-member exchange and perceived organizational support. Personnel Psychology, 57: 305–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Erdogan, B., & Liden, R. 2002. Social exchanges in the workplace: A review of recent developments and future research directions in leader-member exchange theory. In Neider, L., & Schriesheim, C. (Eds.), Leadership, 65–114. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Press.Google Scholar
Ferguson, M., Carlson, D., & Whitten, D. 2009. The fallout from abusive supervision through work-family conflict: An examination of job incumbents and their parents. Paper presented at the meeting of Southern Management Association, Asheville, NC. Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
Finney, H. C., & Lesieur, H. R. 1982. A contingency theory of organizational crime. Research in the Sociology of Organizations, 1: 255–99.Google Scholar
Fisher, K. W., & Tangney, J. P. 1995. Self-conscious emotions and the affect revolution: Framework and overview. In Tangney, J. P. & Fisher, K. W. (Eds.), Self-conscious emotions: The psychology of shame, guilt, embarrassment, and pride: 3–22. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Fox, S., & Spector, P. E. 1999. A model of work frustration—aggression. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20: 915–31.3.0.CO;2-6>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frijda, N. H. 1986. The emotions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Frost, P. J. 2004. New challenges for leaders and their organization. Organization Dynamics, 33: 111–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gardner, W. L., & Avolio, B. J. 1998. The charismatic relationship: A dramaturgical perspective. Academy of Management Review, 23: 32–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Giberson, T. R., Resick, C. J., & Dickson, M. W. 2005. Embedding leader characteristics: An examination of homogeneity of personality and values in organizations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90: 1002–10.Google ScholarPubMed
Gioia, D. A. 1992. Pinto fires and personal ethics: A script analysis of missed opportunities. Journal of Business Ethics, 11: 379–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gouldner, A. W. 1960. The norm of reciprocity: A preliminary statement. American Sociological Review, 25: 161–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graen, G. B., & Uhl-Bien, M. 1995. Relationship-based approach to leadership: Development of leader-member exchange (LMX) theory of leadership over 25 years: Applying a multi-level multi-domain perspective. Leadership Quarterly, 6: 219–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenwald, A. G. 1980. The totalitarian ego: Fabrication and revision of personal history. American Psychologist, 35: 603–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haidt, J. 2001. The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 108: 814–34.Google ScholarPubMed
Haidt, J. 2003. The moral emotions. In Davison, R. J.Scherer, K. R. & Goldsmith, H. H. (Eds.), Handbook of affective sciences: 852–70. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Haidt, J., & Graham, J. 2007. When morality opposes justice: Conservatives have moral intuitions that liberals may not recognize. Social Justice Research, 20: 98–116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haidt, J., Rosenberg, E., & Hom, H. 2003. Differentiating diversities: Moral diversity is not like other kinds. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 33, 1–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hambrick, D. C., & Mason, P. A., 1984. Upper echelons: The organization as a reflection of its top managers. Academy of Management Review, 9: 193–206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, K. J., Kacmar, K. M., & Zivnuska, S. 2007. An investigation of abusive supervision as a predictor of performance and the meaning of work as a moderator of the relationship. Leadership Quarterly, 18: 252–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, M. M., & Schaubroeck, J. 1988. A meta-analysis of self-supervisor, self-peer, and peer-supervisor ratings. Personnel Psychology, 41: 43–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haslam, S. A., Ryan, M. K., Postmes, T., Spears, R., Jetten, J., & Webley, P. 2006. Sticking to our guns: Social identity as a basis for the maintenance of commitment to faltering organizational projects. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 27: 607–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hatfield, E., Cacioppo, J., & Rapson, R. 1994. Emotional contagion. New York: Bantam Books.Google Scholar
Hepworth, W., & Towler, A. 2004. The effects of individual differences and charismatic leadership on workplace aggression. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 9: 176–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hewlin, P. F. 2003. And the award for the best actor goes to … : Facades of conformity in organizational settings. Academy of Management Review, 28: 633–42.Google Scholar
Hewlin, P. F. 2009. Wearing the cloak: Antecedents and consequences of creating facades of conformity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94: 727–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hing, L. S., Bobocel, D. R., Zanna, M. P., & McBride, M. V. 2007. Authoritarian dynamics and unethical decision making: High social dominance orientation leaders and high right-wing authoritarianism followers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92: 67–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hobfoll, S. E. 1989. Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44: 513–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hofstede, G. 1980. Culture’s consequences. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Hogan, R., Curphy, G. J., & Hogan, J. 1994. What we know about leadership: Effectiveness and personality. American Psychologist, 49: 493–504.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hoobler, J. M., & Brass, D. J. 2006. Abusive supervision and family undermining as displaced aggression. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91: 1125–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
House, R. J. 1977. A 1976 theory of charismatic leadership. In Hunt, J. G. & L. Larson, L. (Eds.), Leadership: The cutting edge: 189–207. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press.Google Scholar
House, R. J. 1996. Path-goal theory of leadership: Lessons, legacy and a reformulated theory. Leadership Quarterly, 7: 323–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorman, P. W., & Gupta, V. 2004. Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. W., Sully de Luque, M., & House, R. J. 2006. In the eyes of the beholder: Cross cultural lessons in leadership from project GLOBE. Academy of Management Perspectives, 20: 67–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jehn, K. A., Northcraft, G. B., & Neale, M. A. 1999. Why differences make a difference: A field study of diversity, conflict, and performance in workgroups. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44: 741–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, S. K. 2008. I second that emotion: Effects of emotional contagion and affect at work on leader and follower outcomes. Leadership Quarterly, 19: 1–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, S. K. 2009. Do you feel what I feel? Mood contagion and leadership outcomes. Leadership Quarterly, 20: 814–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, T. M. 1991. Ethical decision making by individuals in organizations: An issue-contingent model. Academy of Management Review, 16: 366–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jordan, J., Brown, M. E., & Treviño, L. K., 2010. The executive as ethical leader: The relationship between leader-follower ethical reasoning and perceived ethical leadership. University of Groningen. Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
Jordan, N. 1965. The asymmetry of liking and disliking. A phenomenon meriting further reflection and research. Public Opinion Quarterly, 29: 315–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Judge, T. A., & Piccolo, R. F. 2004. Transformational and transactional leadership: A meta-analysis of their relative validity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89: 755–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. 1979. Prospect theory: An analysis of decisions under risk. Econometrica, 47: 263–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kanouse, D. E., & Hanson, L. 1972. Negativity in evaluations. In Jones, E. E.Kanouse, D. E.Valins, S.Kelley, H. H.Nisbett, R. E. & Weiner, B. (Eds.), Attribution: Perceiving the causes of behavior: 47–62. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.Google Scholar
Kanungo, R., & Mendonca, M. 1996. Ethical dimensions of leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Katz, D., & Kahn, R. L. 1978. The Social psychology of organizations. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Google Scholar
Kelman, H. C. 1973. Violence without moral restraint: Reflections on the dehumanization of victims and victimizers. Journal of Social Issues, 29: 25–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kohlberg, L. 1969. State and sequence: The cognitive-development approach to socialization. In Goslin, D. (Ed.), Handbook of socialization theory and research: 347–480. Chicago: Rand-McNally.Google Scholar
Kristof, A. L. 1996. Person-organization fit: An integrative review of its conceptualizations, measurement, and implications. Personnel Psychology, 49: 1–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kristof-Brown, A. L., Zimmerman, R. D., & Johnson, E. C., 2005. Consequences of individuals’ fit at work: A meta-analysis of person-job, person-organization, person-group, and person-supervisor fit. Personnel Psychology, 58: 281–342.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewis, K. M. 2000. When leaders display emotion: How followers respond to negative emotional expression of male and female leaders. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21: 221–34.3.0.CO;2-0>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lord, R. G., & Brown, D. J. 2004. Leadership processes and follower self-identity. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Luthans, F., & Avolio, B. J. 2003. Authentic leadership: A positive developmental approach. In Cameron, K.Dutton, J. E. & Quinn, R. E. (Eds.), Positive organizational scholarship: Foundations of a new disciple: 241–58. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.Google Scholar
Madera, J. M., & Smith, D. B. 2009. The effects of leader negative emotions on evaluations of leadership in a crisis situation: The role of anger and sadness. Leadership Quarterly, 20: 103–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mael, F. A., & Ashforth, B. E. 1992. Alumni and their alma mater: A partial test of the reformulated model of organizational identification. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 13: 103–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mayer, D. M., Kuenzi, M., Greenbaum, R., Bardes, M., & Salvador, R. 2009. How low does ethical leadership flow? Test of a trickle-down model. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 108: 1–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mitchell, M. S. 2008. Unethical leader behavior and employee workplace deviance and the moderating effects of need for affiliation and moral identity. Paper presented at the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology annual conference, San Francisco, CA. Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
Mitchell, M. S., & Ambrose, M. L. 2007. Abusive supervision and workplace deviance and moderating effects of negative reciprocity beliefs. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92: 1159–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mitchell, M. S., & Palmer, N. F. 2010. Understanding the managerial relevance of ethical efficacy. In Schminke, M. (Ed.), Managerial ethics: Managing the psychology of morality (vol. 2): 89–108. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Mitchell, M. S., Vogel, R. M., Tepper, B. J., & Palmer, N. F. 2010. Justifying supervisor abuse: Subordinate performance, moral disengagement, and need for achievement. Presentation at the meeting of Academy of Management, Montréal, CA. Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
Muraven, M., & Baumeister, R. F. 2000. Self-regulatory and depletion of limited resources: Does self-control resemble a muscle? Psychological Bulletin, 126: 247–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neubert, M. J., Carlson, D. S., Kacmar, K. M., Roberts, J. A., & Chonko, L. B. 2009. The virtuous influence of ethical leadership behavior: Evidence from the field. Journal of Business Ethics, 90: 157–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neuman, J. H., & Baron, R. A. 1998. Workplace violence and workplace aggression: Evidence concerning specific forms, potential causes, and preferred targets. Journal of Management, 24: 391–419.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O’Leary-Kelly, A. M., Griffin, R. W., & Glew, D. J. 1996. Organization-motivated aggression: A research framework. Academy of Management Review, 21: 225–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Opotow, S. 1990. Moral exclusion and injustice: An introduction. Journal of Social Issues, 46: 1–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pelletier, K. L., & Bligh, M. C. 2008. The aftermath of organizational corruption: Employee attributions and emotional reactions. Journal of Business Ethics, 80: 823–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peters, G. 2002. From good and bad to can and must: Subjective necessity of acts associated with positively and negatively valued stimuli. European Journal of Social Psychology, 32: 125–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Piccolo, R. F., Greenbaum, R., Den Hartog, D. N., & Folger, R., 2010. The relationship between ethical leadership and core job characteristics. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31: 259–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pillai, R., Schriesheim, C. A., & Williams, E. S. 1999. Fairness perceptions and trust as mediators for transformational and transactional leadership: A two-sample study. Journal of Management, 25: 897–933.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pinto, J., Leana, C. R., & Pil, F. K. 2008. Corrupt organizations or organizations of corrupt individuals? Two types of organization-level corruption. Academy of Management Review, 33: 685–709.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Moorman, R. H., & Fetter, R. 1990. Transformational leader behaviors and their effects on followers’ trust in leader, satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Leadership Quarterly, 1: 107–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Postmes, T., & Jetten, J. 2006. Reconciling individuality and the group. In Postmes, T. & Jetten, J. (Eds.), Individuality and the group: Advances in social identity: 258–69. London: Sage.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reed, A., II, & Aquino, K. F. 2003. Moral identity and the expanding circle of moral regard toward out-groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84: 1270–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Resick, C., Hanges, P., Dickson, M., & Mitchelson, J. 2006. A cross-cultural examination of the endorsement of ethical leadership. Journal of Business Ethics, 63: 345–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reynolds, S. J., & Ceranic, T. L. 2007. The effects of moral judgment and moral identity on moral behavior: An empirical examination of the moral individual. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92: 1610–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Riketta, M. 2005. Organizational identification: A meta-analysis. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 66: 358–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robertson, D. C., & Rymon, T. 2001. Purchasing agents’ deceptive behavior: A randomized response technique study. Business Ethics Quarterly, 11: 455–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robinson, S., & O’Leary-Kelly, A. 1998. Monkey see, monkey do: The influence of work groups on the antisocial behavior of employees. Academy of Management Journal, 41: 658–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robinson, S. L., & Bennett, R. J. 1995. A typology of deviant workplace behaviors: A multidimensional scaling study. Academy of Management Journal, 38: 555–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rozin, P., & Royzman, E. B. 2001. Negativity bias, negativity dominance, and contagion. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5: 296–320.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rubin, R. S., Dierdorff, E. C., & Brown, M. E., 2010. Do ethical leaders get ahead? Exploring ethical leadership and promotability. Business Ethics Quarterly, 20: 215–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salancik, G. J., & Pfeffer, J. 1978. A social information processing approach to job attitudes and task design. Administrative Science Quarterly, 23: 224–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salvador, R., & Folger, R. 2009. Business ethics and the brain. Business Ethics Quarterly, 19: 1–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schaubroeck, J., & Lam, S. S. K. 2002. How similarity to peers and supervisor influences organizational advancement in different cultures. Academy of Management Journal, 45: 1120–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schein, E. 1992. Organizational culture and leadership (2nd ed.). San Francisco:Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
Schminke, M., Ambrose, M. L., & Neubaum, D. O. 2005. The effect of leader moral development on ethical climate and employee attitudes. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 97: 135–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schminke, M., Wells, D., Peyreffite, J., & Sebora, T. C. 2002. Leadership and ethics in work groups: A longitudinal assessment. Group and Organization Management, 27: 272–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schneider, B. 1987. The people make the place. Personnel Psychology, 40: 437–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shao, R., Aquino, K., & Freeman, D. 2008. Beyond moral reasoning: A review of moral identity research and its implications for business ethics. Business Ethics Quarterly, 18: 513–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sims, R. R., & Brinkmann, J. 2002. Leaders as moral role models: The case of John Gutfreund at Salomon Brothers. Journal of Business Ethics, 35: 327–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skarlicki, D. P., & Folger, R. 1997. Retaliation in the workplace: The roles of distributive, procedural, and interactional justice. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82: 434–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skarlicki, D. P., van Jaarsveld, D., & Walker, D. 2008. Getting even for customer mistreatment: The role of moral identity in the relationship between customer interpersonal injustice and employee sabotage. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93: 1335–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sy, T., Côté, S., & Saavedra, R. 2005. The contagious leader: Impact of the leader’s mood on the mood of group members, group affective tone, and group processes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90: 295–305.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tajfel, H. 1978. Social categorization, social identity and social comparison. In Tajfel, H. (Ed.), Differentiation between social groups: Studies in the social psychology of intergroup relations: 61–76. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Tajfel, H. 1982. Social psychology of intergroup relations. Annual Review of Psychology, 33: 1–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. 1979. An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In Austin, W. G. & Worchel, S. (Eds.), The social psychology of group relations: 33–47. Monterey, CA: Brooks-Cole.Google Scholar
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. 1986. The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In Worchel, S. & Austin, W. G. (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (2nd ed.): 7–24. Chicago: Nelson-Hall.Google Scholar
Tangney, J. P. 1991. Moral affect: The good, the bad, and the ugly. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61: 598–607.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tangney, J. P., & Dearing, R. L. 2002. Shame and guilt. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Tepper, B. J. 2000. Consequences of abusive supervision. Academy of Management Journal, 43: 178–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tepper, B. J. 2007. Abusive supervision in work organizations: Review, synthesis, and research agenda. Journal of Management, 33: 261–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tepper, B. J., Carr, J. C., Breaux, D. M., Geider, S., Hu, C., & Hua, W. 2009. Abusive supervision, intentions to quit, and employees’ workplace deviance: A power/dependence analysis. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 109: 156–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tepper, B. J., Duffy, M. K., Henle, C. A., & Lambert, L. S. 2006. Procedural injustice, victim precipitation, and abusive supervision. Personnel Psychology, 59: 101–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tepper, B. J., Duffy, M. K., & Shaw, J. D. 2001. Personality moderators of the relationship between abusive supervision and subordinates’ resistance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86: 974–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tepper, B. J., Henle, C. A., Lambert, L. S., Giacalone, R. A., & Duffy, M. K. 2008. Abusive supervision and subordinates’ organizational deviance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93: 721–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tepper, B. J., Moss, S. E., & Duffy, M. K. In press. Predictors of abusive supervision: Supervisor perceptions of deep-level dissimilarity, relationship conflict, and subordinate performance. Academy of Management Journal.Google Scholar
Tepper, B. J., Moss, S. E., Lockhart, D. E., & Carr, J. C. 2007. Abusive supervision, upward maintenance communication, and subordinates’ psychological distress. Academy of Management Journal, 50: 1169–80.Google Scholar
Thau, S., Aquino, K., & Poortvliet, P. M. 2007. Self-defeating behaviors in organizations: The relationship between thwarted belonging and interpersonal work behaviors. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92: 840–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thau, S., Bennett, R. J., Mitchell, M. S., & Marrs, M. B. 2009. How management style moderates the relationship between abusive supervision and workplace deviance: An uncertainty management theory perspective. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 108: 79–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thau, S., & Mitchell, M. S. In press. Self-gain or self-regulation impairment? Examining two explanations of the supervisor abuse–employee deviance relationship through distributive justice perceptions. Journal of Applied Psychology.Google Scholar
Thomas, T., Schermerhorn, J. R., & Dienhart, J. W. 2004. Strategic leadership of ethical behavior in business. Academy of Management Executive, 18: 56–66.Google Scholar
Toor, S., & Ofori, G. 2009. Ethical leadership: Examining the relationships with full range leadership model, employee outcomes, and organizational culture. Journal of Business Ethics, 90: 533–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Treviño, L. K. 1986. Ethical decision making in organizations: A person-situation interactionist model. Academy of Management Review, 11: 601–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Treviño, L. K., Brown, M., & Hartman, L. P. 2003. A qualitative investigation of perceived executive ethical leadership: Perceptions from inside and outside the executive suite. Human Relations, 55: 5–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Treviño, L. K., Hartman, L. P., & Brown, M. 2000. Moral person and moral manager: How executive develop a reputation for ethical leadership. California Management Review, 42: 128–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Treviño, L. K., Weaver, G. R., & Brown, M. E. 2008. It’s lovely at the top: Hierarchical levels, identities, and perceptions of organizational ethics. Business Ethics Quarterly, 18: 233–53.Google Scholar
Treviño, L. K., Weaver, G. R., & Reynolds, S. J. 2006. Behavioral ethics in organizations: A review. Journal of Management, 32: 951–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trompenaars, F., & Hampden-Turner, C. 1998. Riding the waves of culture: Understanding cultural diversity in global business (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Turner, N., Barling, J., Epitropaki, O., Butcher, V., & Milner, C. 2002. Transformational leadership and moral reasoning. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87: 304–11.Google Scholar
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. 1991. Loss aversion in riskless choice: A reference-dependent model. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 106: 1039–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Umphress, E. E., Bingham, J. B., & Mitchell, M. S. 2010. Unethical behavior in the name of the company: The moderating effect of organizational identification and positive reciprocity beliefs influencing unethical pro-organizational behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95: 769–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Knippenberg, D., & Hogg, M. A. 2003. A social identity model of leadership effectiveness in organizations. Research in Organizational Behavior, 25: 243–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vardi, Y., & Weitz, E. 2005. Misbehavior in organizations: Theory, research, and management. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Verona, E., Reed, A., II, & Aquino, K. F. 2003. Automatic and controlled processes of aggression activation and regulation: The role of negative affect, ruminative content and identity driven self-control mechanisms. University of Pennsylvania. Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
Walumbwa, F. O., Avolio, B. J., Gardner, W. L., Wernsing, T. S., & Peterson, S. J. 2008. Authentic leadership: Development and validation of a theory-based measure. Journal of Management, 34: 89–126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walumbwa, F. O., & Schaubroeck, J. 2009. Leader personality traits and employee voice behavior: Mediating roles of ethical leadership and work group psychological safety. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94: 1275–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weaver, G. R., and Brown, M. E. In press. Moral foundations at work: new factors to consider in understanding the nature and role of ethics in organizations. In Tenbrunsel, A. & De Cremer, D. (Eds.), Behavioral business ethics: Ideas on an emerging field. Psychology Press/Routledge/Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Weaver, G. R., Treviño, L. K., & Cochran, P. L. 1999. Corporate ethics programs as control systems: Influences of executive commitment and environmental factors. Academy of Management Journal, 42: 41–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weber, M. 1920. The theory of social and economic organization. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Weiss, H., & Cropanzano, R. 1996. Affective events theory: A theoretical discussion of the structure, causes, and consequences of affective experiences at work. Research in Organizational Behavior, 18: 1–74.Google Scholar
Yeager, P. C. 1986. Analyzing corporate offenses: Progress and prospects. Research in Corporate Social Performance and Policy, 8: 93–120.Google Scholar
Yussen, S. R., & Levy, V. M Jr. 1975. Effects of warm and neutral models on the attention of observational learners. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 20: 66–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zellers, K. L., Tepper, B. J., & Duffy, M. K. 2002. Abusive supervision and subordinates’ organizational citizenship behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87: 1068–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar