Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-lj6df Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-04T19:09:42.556Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

The Development of Moral Imagination

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 January 2015

Abstract:

Moral imagination is a reasoning process thought to counter the organizational factors that corrupt ethical judgment. We describe the psychology of moral imagination as composed of the four decision processes identified by Rest (1986), i.e., moral sensitivity, moral judgment, moral intention, and moral behavior. We examine each process in depth, distilling extant psychological research and indicating organizational implications. The conclusion offers suggestions for future research.

The majority of men are subjective toward themselves and objective toward all others—terribly objective sometimes—but the real task is in fact to be objective toward one’s self and subjective toward all others.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Society for Business Ethics 2000

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abelson, R. P. 1981. “Psychological Status of the Script Concept.” American Psychologist 36: 715729.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aron, A.; Aron, E. N.; Tudor, M.; and Nelson, G. 1991. “Close Relationships as Including Other in the Self.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 60: 241253.Google Scholar
Badaracco, J. L. Jr. 1997. Defining Moments. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.Google Scholar
Bandura, A. 1990. “Selective Activation and Disengagement of Moral Control.” Journal of Social Issues 46: 2746.Google Scholar
Bandura, A. 1991. “Social Cognitive Theory of Moral Thought and Action.” In Handbook of Moral Behavior and Development, Volume 1: Theory, ed. Kurtines, W. M., and Gewirtz, J. L., pp. 45104. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Barach, J. A. 1985. “The Ethics of Hardball.” California Management Review 27, no. 7: 132139.Google Scholar
Batson, C. D.; Sager, K.; Garst, E.; Kang, M.; Rubchinsky, K.; and Dawson, K. 1997. “Is Empathy-Induced Helping Due to Self-Other Merging?” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 72: 495509.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Batson, C. D.; Polycarpou, M. P.; Harmon-Jones, E.; Imhoff, H. J.; Mitchener, E. C; Bednar, L. L.; Klein, T. R.; and Highberger, L. 1997. “Empathy and Attitudes: Can Feeling for a Member of a Stigmatized Group Improve Feelings Toward the Group?” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 72: 105118.Google Scholar
Batson, C. D., and Shaw, L. L. 1991. “Encouraging Words Concerning the Evidence for Altruism,” Psychological Inquiry 2: 159168.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beck, L. G. 1992. “Meeting the Challenge of the Future: The Place of a Caring Ethic in Educational Administration,” American Journal of Education 100: 454496.Google Scholar
Bernstein, W., and Davis, M. 1982. “Perspective Taking, Self-Consciousness, and Accuracy in Person Perception.” Basic and Applied Social Psychology 3: 119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blasi, A. 1980. “Bridging Moral Cognition and Moral Action: A Critical Review of the Literature.” Psychological Bulletin 88: 145.Google Scholar
Blasi, A. 1983. “Moral Cognition and Moral Action: A Theoretical Perspective.” Developmental Review 3: 178210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blasi, A. 1984. “Moral Identity: Its Role in Moral Functioning.” In Morality, Moral Behavior, and Moral Development, ed. Kurtines, W. M., and Gewitz, J. L., pp. 128139. New York: John Wiley and Sons.Google Scholar
Blasi, A. 1993. “The Development of Identity: Some Implications for Moral Functioning.” In The Moral Self, ed. Noam, G. G., and Wren, T. E., pp. 99122. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Bollier, D. 1996. Aiming Higher: 25 Stories of How Companies Prosper by Combining Sound Management and Social Vision. New York: AMACOM.Google Scholar
Carmel, S., and Glick, S. M. 1996. “Compassionate-Empathic Physicians: Personality Traits and Social-Organizational Factors that Enhance or Inhibit this Behavior Pattern.” Social Science of Medicine 43: 12531261.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caulkins, M. 1998. “Casuistry, Virtue, and Business Ethics.” Ph.D. Dissertation, Colgate Darden Graduate School of Business Administration, University of Virginia.Google Scholar
Cavanagh, G. R; Moberg, D. J.; and Velasquez, M. 1995. “Making Business Ethicp Practical.” Business Ethics Quarterly 5: 399418.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chap, J. B. 1986. “Moral Judgment in Middle and Late Adulthood: The Effects of Age-Appropriate Moral Dilemmas and Spontaneous Role-Taking.” International Journal of Aging and Human Development 22: 161171.Google Scholar
Cialdini, R. B.; Brown, S. L.; Lewis, B. P.; Luce, C; and Neuberg, S. L. 1997. “Reinterpreting the Empathy-Altruism Relationship: When One into One Equals Oneness.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 73: 481494.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ciulla, J. B. 1994. “Casuistry and the Case of Business Ethics.” In Business as a Humanity, ed. Donaldson, T. J., and Freeman, R. E., pp. 167183. New York: Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, R; Bearison, D. J.; and Muller, C. 1987. “Interpersonal Understanding in the Elderly.” Research on Aging 9: 79100.Google Scholar
Cohen, M., and Davis, N. 1981. Medication Errors: Causes and Prevention. Philadelphia: Stickley.Google Scholar
Colby, A., and Damon, W. 1992. Some Do Care: Contemporary Lives of Moral Commitment. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Colby, A., and Damon, W. 1993. “The Uniting of Self and Morality in the Development of Extraordinary Moral Commitment.” In The Moral Self ed. Noam, G. G., and Wren, T. E., pp. 149179. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Cook, S. W. 1990. “Toward a Psychology of Improving Justice: Research on Extending the Equality Principle to Victims of Social Injustice.” Journal of Social Issues 46: 147161.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooper, R. K., and Sawaf, A. 1996. Executive EQ: Emotional Intelligence in Leadership and Organizations. New York: Grosset/Putnam.Google Scholar
Conger, J. A. 1998. “The Necessary Art of Persuasion.” Harvard Business Review 113, no. 3: 8495.Google Scholar
Craig, D. 1998. “Cross-training, Rotation Leads to Less Stress.” The American Editor, no. 788: 1617.Google Scholar
Darley, J. M., and Latane, B. 1968. “Bystander Interventions in Emergencies.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 8: 377383.Google Scholar
Daudelin, M. W. 1996. “Learning from Experience Through Reflection.” Organizational Dynamics 24, no. 3: 3648.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, M. H.; Conklin, L.; Smith, A.; and Luce, C. 1996. “Effect of Perspective Taking on the Cognitive Representations of Persons: A Merging of Self and Other.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70: 713726.Google Scholar
Deal, T. E., and Kennedy, A. A. 1982. Corporate Cultures: The Rites and Rituals of Corporate Life. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
Deutsch, M. 1974. “Awakening the Sense of Injustice.” In The Quest for Justice: Myth, Reality, Ideal, ed. Lerner, M., and Ross, M., pp. 103126. Montreal: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.Google Scholar
Deutsch, M. 1985. Distributive Justice: A Social Psychological Perspective. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Dobson, J., and White, J. 1995. “Toward the Feminine Firm: An Extension to Thomas White.” Business Ethics Quarterly 5: 463478.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dreyfus, J. 1983. “Handing Down the Old Hands’ Wisdom.” Fortune, June 13, pp. 97104.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N. 1986. Altruistic Emotion, Cognition and Behavior. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N. 1991. “Meta-analytic Contributions to the Literature on Prosocial Behavior.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 17: 273282.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N.; Carlo, G.; Murphy, B.; and Van Court, P. 1995. “Prosocial Development in Late Adolescence: A Longitudinal Study.” Child Development 66: 11791197.Google Scholar
Elliott, C, and Elliott, B. 1991. “From the Patient’s Point of View: Medical Ethics and the Moral Imagination.” Journal of Medical Ethics 17: 173178.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Epstein, S. 1973. “The Self-Concept Revisited: Or a Theory of a Theory.” American Psychologist 28: 404416.Google Scholar
Exum, H. 1980. “Ego Development: Using Curriculum to Facilitate Growth.” Character Development 9: 121128.Google Scholar
Farkas, C. M., and De Backer, P. 1996. Maximum Leadership: The World’s Leading CEOs Share Their Five Strategies for Success. New York: Henry Holt.Google Scholar
Ferreira, M. J. 1994. “Hume and Imagination: Sympathy and ‘the Other’.” International Philosophical Quarterly 34: 3957.Google Scholar
Fine, M. 1990. “The Public’ in Public Schools: The Social Construction/Constriction of Moral Communities.” Journal of Social Issues 46: 107119.Google Scholar
Fiske, S. T., and Taylor, S. E. 1991. Social Cognition. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Franzoi, S. L.; Davis, M. H; and Young, R. D. 1985. “The Effects of Private Self-consciousness and Perspective Taking on Satisfaction in Close Relationships.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 48: 15841594.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
George, J. M., and Brief, A. P. 1992. “Feeling Good-Doing Good: A Conceptual Analysis of the Mood at Work-Organizational Spontaneity Relationship.” Psychological Bulletin 112: 310329.Google Scholar
Gilligan, C. 1982. In a Different Voice. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Gillon, R. 1997. “Imagination, Literature, Medical Ethics and Medical Practice.” Journal of Medical Ethics 23: 34.Google Scholar
Gioia, D. A. 1992. “Pinto Fires and Personal Ethics: A Script Analysis of Missed Opportunities.” Journal of Business Ethics 11: 379389.Google Scholar
Gregory, W. L.; Cialdini, R. B.; and Carpenter, K. M. 1982. “Self-Relevant Scenarios as Mediators of Likelihood Estimates and Compliance: Does Imaging Make It So.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 43: 8999.Google Scholar
Guervin, B. M. 1995. “The Moral Imagination and the Shaping Power of the Parables.” Journal of Religious Ethics 43: 6379.Google Scholar
Hackman, J. R. and Oldham, G. R. 1980. Work Redesign. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
Heath, E. 1995. “The Commerce of Sympathy: Adam Smith on the Emergence of Morals.” Journal of the History of Philosophy 33: 447467.Google Scholar
Held, V. 1987. “Feminism and Moral Theory.” In Women and Moral Theory, ed. Kittay, E. F. and Meyers, D. T., pp. 111128. Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Littlefield.Google Scholar
Hoffman, M. L. 1977. “Sex Differences in Empathy and Related Behaviors.” Psychological Bulletin 84: 712722.Google Scholar
Jacobs, J. 1991. “Moral Imagination, Objectivity, and Practical Wisdom.” International Philosophical Quarterly 31: 2337.Google Scholar
Johnson, M. 1993. Moral Imagination. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Jonsen, A. and Toulmin, S. 1987. The Abuse of Casuistry: A History of Moral Reasoning. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Jones, T. M., and Ryan, L. V. 1997. “The Link Between Ethical Judgment and Action in Organizations.” Organization Science 8: 663680.Google Scholar
Jones, T. M., and Ryan, L. V. 1998. “The Effect of Organizational Forces on Individual Morality: Judgment, Moral Approbation, and Behavior.” Business Ethics Quarterly 8: 433446.Google Scholar
Kekes, J. 1991. “Moral Imagination, Freedom, and the Humanities.” American Philosophical Quarterly 28: 101111.Google Scholar
Kekes, J. 1995. Moral Wisdom and Good Lives. Ithaca, N.Y: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Klein, S. 1998. “Don Quixote and the Problem of Idealism and Realism in Business Ethics.” Business Ethics Quarterly 8: 4363.Google Scholar
Kofman, E, and Senge, P. M. 1993. “Communities of Commitment: The Heart of the Learning Organization.” Organizational Dynamics 12, no. 3: 523.Google Scholar
Kohlberg, L. 1976. “Moral Stages and Moralization: The Cognitive Developmental Approach.” In Moral Development and Behavior, ed. Lickona, T., pp. 3153. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.Google Scholar
Krebs, D. L. 1975. “Empathy and Altruism.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 32: 11341146.Google Scholar
Krebs, D. L., and Russell, C. 1981. “Role taking and Altruism: When You Put Yourself in the Shoes of Another, Will They Take You to Their Owner’s Aid?” In Altruism and Helping Behavior, ed. Rushton, J. and Sorrentino, R., pp. 137165. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Langer, E. J. 1989a. “Minding Matters: The Consequences of Mindlessness-Mindfulness.” In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Volume 22, ed. Berkowitz, L., pp. 137173. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Langer, E. J. 1989b. Mindfulness. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
Lapsley, D. K. 1996. Moral Psychology. Boulder, Col.: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Lapsley, D. K. and Quintana, S. M. 1989. “Mental Capacity and Roletaking: A Structural Equations Approach.” Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 35: 143163.Google Scholar
Lee, L. and Snarey, J. 1988. “The Relationship Between Ego and Moral Development.” In Self Ego, and Identity, ed. Lapsley, D. and Power, C, pp. 151178. New York: Springer-Verlag.Google Scholar
Levi, B. H. 1996. “Four Approaches to Doing Ethics.” The Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 21: 739.Google Scholar
Louis, M. R. and Sutton, R. I. 1991. “Switching Cognitive Gears: From Habits of Mind to Active Thinking.” Human Relations 44: 5576.Google Scholar
Markus, H. and Nurius, P. 1986. “Possible Selves.” American Psychologist 41: 954969.Google Scholar
Markus, H., and Ruvolo, A. 1989. “Possible Selves: Personalized Representations of Goals.” In Goal Concepts in Personality and Social Psychology, ed. Pervin, A., pp. 211242. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Martin, J. and Siehl, D. 1983. “Organizational Culture and Counterculture: An Uneasy Symbiosis.” Organizational Dynamics 12, no. 2: 5265.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mead, G. H. 1934. Mind, Self and Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Mill, J. 1984. “High and Low Self-monitoring Individuals: Their Decoding Skills and Emphatic Expression.” Journal of Personality 52: 372388.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moberg, D. J. 1997On Employee Vice.” Business Ethics Quarterly 1: 4160.Google Scholar
Moberg, D. J. 2000. “Role Models and Moral Exemplars.” Business Ethics Quarterly 10: 675696.Google Scholar
Neale, M. A. and Bazerman, M. H. 1983. “The Role of Perspective-taking Ability in Negotiation Under Different Forms of Arbitration.” Industrial and Labor Relations Review 36: 378388.Google Scholar
Nielsen, R. P. 1993. “Organizational Ethics from a Perspective of Action (Praxis).” Business Ethics Quarterly 3: 131151.Google Scholar
Nielsen, R. P. 1996. The Politics of Ethics. New York: Oxford.Google Scholar
Noam, G. G. and Wren, T. E., eds. 1993. The Moral Self. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Noddings, N. 1984. Caring, A Feminine Approach to Ethics and Moral Education. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Nussbaum, M. C. 1990. Love’s Knowledge. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Oaklander, H. 1990. “Case Study: Small Plant Lay-Off.” In Case Studies in Business Ethics, ed. Donaldson, T., and Gini, A. R., pp. 136146. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Opotow, S. 1990a. “Moral Exclusion and Injustice: An Introduction.” Journal of Social Issues 46: 120.Google Scholar
Opotow, S. 1990b. “Deterring Moral Exclusion.” Journal of Social Issues 46: 173182.Google Scholar
Opotow, S. 1995. “Drawing the Line: Social Categorization, Moral Exclusion, and the Scope of Justice.” In Conflict, Cooperation, and Justice: Essays Inspired by the Work of Morton Deutsch, ed. Bunker, B. B. and Rubin, J. Z., pp. 347369. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
O’Reilly, C. A.; Chatman, J.; and Caldwell, D. F. 1991. “People and Organizational Culture: A Profile Comparison Approach to Assessing Person-Organization Fit.’ Academy of Management Journal 34: 487516.Google Scholar
Oswald, P. A. 1996. “The Effects of Cognitive and Affective Perspective Taking on Empathie Concern and Altruistic Helping.” Journal of Social Psychology 136: 613623.Google Scholar
Ouchi, W. G. 1980. “Markets, Bureaucracies, and Clans.” Administrative Science Quarterly 25: 129141.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oyserman, D. and Markus, H. R. 1990. “Possible Selves and Delinquency.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 59: 112125.Google Scholar
Piaget, J. 1932. The Moral Development of the Child. London: Kegan, Paul.Google Scholar
Pompa, V. 1992. “Managerial Secrecy: An Ethical Examination.” Journal of Business Ethics 11: 147156.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pratt, M. W.; Diessner, R.; Pratt, A.; Hunsberger, B.; and Pancer, S. M. 1996. “Moral and Social Reasoning and Perspective Taking in Later Life: A Longitudinal Study.” Psychology and Aging 11: 6673.Google Scholar
Rest, J. R. 1986. Moral Development: Advances in Research and Theory. New York: Praeger.Google Scholar
Rest, J. R. 1994. “Background: Theory and Research.” In Moral Development in the Professions: Psychology and Applied Ethics, ed. Rest, J. R. and Narvez, D., pp. 126. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Richardson, D. R.; Hammock, G. S.; Smith, S. M.; Gardner, W.; and Signo, M. 1994. “Empathy as a Cognitive Inhibitor of Interpersonal Aggression.” Aggressive Behavior 20: 275289.Google Scholar
Roberts, W. and Strayer, J. 1996. “Empathy, Emotional Expressiveness, and Prosocial Behavior.” Child Development 67: 449470.Google Scholar
Rothchild-Whitt, J. 1979. “The Collectivist Organization: An Alternative to Rational Bureaucratic Models.” American Sociological Review 44: 509527.Google Scholar
Sandelands, L. E. and Buckner, G. C. 1989. “Of Art and Work: Aesthetic Experience and the Psychology of Work Feelings.” In Research in Organizational Behavior, Volume 11, ed. Cummings, L. L. and Staw, B. M., pp. 105131. Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press.Google Scholar
Schein, E. H. 1990. “Organizational Culture.” American Psychologist 45: 109119.Google Scholar
Schwalbe, M. L. 1991. “Role Taking, Self-Monitoring, and the Alignment of Conduct with Others.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 17: 5157.Google Scholar
Scott, P. A. 1997. “Imagination in Practice.” Journal of Medical Ethics 23: 4550.Google Scholar
Scott, R. A.; Aiken, L. H.; Mechanic, D.; and Moravcsik, J. 1995. “Organizational Aspects of Caring.” The Milbank Quarterly 73: 7795.Google Scholar
Selman, R. L. 1971. “The Relation of Role Taking to the Development of Moral Judgment in Children.” Child Development 42: 7991.Google Scholar
Sermat, V. and Smyth, M. 1973. “Content Analysis of Verbal Communication in the Development of a Relationships: Conditions Influencing Self-Disclosure.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 26: 332346.Google Scholar
Sessa, V. I. 1996. “Using Perspective Taking to Manage Conflict and Affect in Teams.” Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 32: 101115.Google Scholar
Shah, P. P. 1998. “Who Are Employees’ Social Referents? Using a Network Perspective to Determine Referent Others.” Academy of Management Journal 41: 249268.Google Scholar
Shapiro, S. B. and Reiff, J. 1993. “A Framework for Reflective Inquiry on Practice: Beyond Intuition and Experience.” Psychological Reports 73: 13791395.Google Scholar
Sheehan, E. P.; Lennon, R.; and McDermitt, T. 1989. “Reactions to AIDS and Other Illnesses: Reported Interactions in the Workplace.” Journal of Psychology 123: 525536.Google Scholar
Shorris, E.199798. “The Triumphant Power of the Humanities.” American Educator 21, no. 4: 27,4345.Google Scholar
Smith, A. 1982 [1759]. The Theory of Moral Sentiments. Indianapolis: Liberty Press.Google Scholar
Sprinthall, N. A. 1994. “Counseling and Social Role Taking: Promoting Moral and Ego Development.” In Moral Development in the Professions: Psychology and Applied Ethics, ed. Rest, J. R. and Narvaez, D., pp. 8599. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Staub, E. 1989. The Roots of Evil: The Psychological and Cultural Origins of Genocide. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Staub, E. 1990. “Moral Exclusion, Personal Goal Theory, and Extreme Destructiveness.” Journal of Social Issues 46: 4765.Google Scholar
1993. “Individual and Group Selves: Motivation, Morality, and Evolution.” In The Moral Self ed. Noam, G. G. and Wren, T. E., pp. 337358. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Stephenson, B. and Wicklund, R. A. 1983. “Self-Directed Attention and Taking the Other’s Perspective.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 19: 5877.Google Scholar
Stotland, E. 1969. “Exploratory Investigations of Empathy.” In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Volume 4, ed. Berkowitz, L., pp. 271313. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Tamborini, R.; Salomonson, K.; and Bahk, C. 1993. “The Relationship of Empathy to Comforting Behavior Following Film Exposure.” Communication Research 20: 723738.Google Scholar
Taylor, S. E.; Pham, L. B.; Rivkin, I. D.; and Armor, D. A. 1998. “Harnessing the Imagination: Mental Simulation, Self-Regulation, and Coping.” American Psychologist 53: 429439.Google Scholar
Thompson, W. C; Cowan, C. L.; and Rosenhan, D. L. 1980. “Focus of Attention Mediates the Impact of Negative Affect on Altruism.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 38: 291300.Google Scholar
Tierney, N. L. 1994. Imagination and Ethical Ideals. Albany: State University of New York Press.Google Scholar
Trevino, L. K.; Butterfield, K. D.; and McCabe, D. L. 1998. “The Ethical Context in Organizations: Influences on Employee Attitudes and Behaviors.” Business Ethics Quarterly 8: 447476.Google Scholar
Trevino, L. K. and Weaver, G. R. 1996. “Barriers to and Facilitators of Moral Perception: The Case of Competitive Intelligence Practitioners.” Paper presented at Academy of Management meeting, Cincinnati.Google Scholar
Trice, H. M. and Beyer, J. M. 1993. The Cultures of Work Organizations. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Trice, H. M. and Morand, D. 1991. “Cultural Diversity: Organizational Subcultures and Countercultures.” In Studies in Organizational SociologyEssays in Honor of Charles K. Warriner, ed. Miller, G., pp. 69105. Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press.Google Scholar
Underwood, B. and Moore, B. 1982. “Perspective-Taking and Altruism.” Psychological Bulletin 91: 143173.Google Scholar
Velasquez, M. G. 1994. “Some Lessons and Nonlessons of Casuist History.” In Business as a Humanity, ed. Donaldson, T. J. and Freeman, R. E., pp. 184195. New York: Oxford.Google Scholar
Victor, B. and Cullen, J. B. 1988. “The Organizational Bases of Ethical Work Climates.” Administrative Science Quarterly 33: 101125.Google Scholar
Vidaver-Cohen, D. 1997. “Moral Imagination in Organizational Problem Solving: An Institutional Perspective.” Business Ethics Quarterly 7: 126.Google Scholar
Vroom, V H. and Jago, A. G. 1988. The New Leadership: Managing Participation in Organ izations. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Werhane, P. H. 1994. “Moral Imagination and the Search for Ethical Decision Making in Management.” The Ruffin Lectures in Business Ethics. Charlottesville: Darden School, University of Virginia.Google Scholar
1998. “Moral Imagination and the Search for Ethical Decision Making in Management.” Business Ethics Quarterly. The Ruffin Series: Special Issue #1: 7598.Google Scholar
White, T. I. 1992. “Business Ethics and Carol Gilligan’s ‘Two Voices.’Business Ethics Quarterly 2: 5161.Google Scholar
Wicks, A. C. and Glezen, P. L. 1998. “In Search of Experts: A Conception of Expertise for Business Ethics Consultation.” Business Ethics Quarterly 8: 105126.Google Scholar
Williams, O. F., ed. 1997. The Moral Imagination: How Literature and Films Can Stimulate Ethical Reflection in the Business World. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.Google Scholar
Wispe, L.; Kiecolt, J.; and Long, R. 1977. “Demand Characteristics, Mood, and Helping.” Social Behavior and Personality 5: 249255.Google Scholar