Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-q99xh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T01:21:46.860Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Bridging Diverging Perspectives and Repairing Damaged Relationships in the Aftermath of Workplace Transgressions

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 January 2015

Tyler G. Okimoto  and
Michael Wenzel
Tyler G. Okimoto
Affiliation:
University of Queensland
Michael Wenzel
Affiliation:
Flinders University
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract:

Workplace transgressions elicit a variety of opinions about their meaning and what is required to address them. This diversity in views makes it difficult for managers to identify a mutually satisfactory response and to enable repair of the relationships between the affected parties. We develop a conceptual model for understanding how to bridge these diverging perspectives and foster relationship repair. Specifically, we argue that effective relationship repair is dependent on the parties’ reciprocal concern for others’ viewpoints and collective engagement in the justice repair process. This approach enhances our understanding of the interdependency between justice and reconciliation/reintegration, while also providing theoretical insight into the processes underlying restorative conferencing, innovations that promise to help managers heal damaged organizational bonds.

Keywords

workplace transgressionsjustice repairrelationship repairreintegrationreconciliationrestorative justice
Type
Articles
Information
Business Ethics Quarterly , Volume 24 , Issue 3 , July 2014 , pp. 443 - 473
Copyright
Copyright © Society for Business Ethics 2014

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Aquino, K., Grover, S.L., Goldman, B., & Folger, R. 2003. When push doesn’t come to shove: Interpersonal forgiveness in workplace relationships. Journal of Management Inquiry, 12: 209–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1056492603256337CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aquino, K., & Reed, A. II, 2003. The self-importance of moral identity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83: 1423–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.83.6.1423CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aquino, K., Tripp, T.M., & Bies, R.J. 2001. How employees respond to personal offense: The effects of blame attribution, victim status, and offender status on revenge and reconciliation in the workplace. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86: 52–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.86.1.52CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aquino, K., Tripp, T.M., & Bies, R.J. 2006. Getting even or moving on? Power, procedural justice, and types of offense as predictors of revenge, forgiveness, reconciliation, and avoidance in organizations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91: 653–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.913.653CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ashforth, B.E., & Mael, F. 1989. Social identity theory and the organization. Academy of Management Review, 14: 20–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baron, R.A., & Neuman, J.H. 1996. Workplace violence and workplace aggression: Evidence of their relative frequency and potential causes. Aggressive Behavior, 22: 161–73.http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-2337(1996)22:3<161::AID-AB1>3.0.CO;2-Q3.0.CO;2-Q>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baumeister, R.F., Stillwell, A.M., & Heatherton, T.F. 1994. Guilt: An interpersonal approach. Psychological Bulletin, 115: 243–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.115.2.243CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bazemore, G. 1998. Restorative justice and earned redemption: Communities, victims, and offender reintegration. American Behavioral Scientist, 41: 768–813. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0002764298041006003CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bies, R.J. 1987. The predicament of injustice: The management of moral outrage. Research in Organizational Behavior, 9: 289–319.Google Scholar
Bies, R.J., & Moag, J.S. 1986. Interactional justice: Communication criteria of fairness. Research on negotiation in organizations, 1(1): 43–55.Google Scholar
Bies, R.J., & Tripp, T.M. 1996. Beyond distrust: “Getting even” and the need for revenge. In Kramer, R.M., & Tyler, T.R. (Eds.), Trust in organizations: 246–60. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Blader, S.L., Chang, C.-C., & Tyler, T.R. 2001. Procedural justice and retaliation in organizations: Comparing cross-nationally the importance of fair group processes. International Journal of Conflict Management, 12(4): 295–311. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/eb022860Google Scholar
Blader, S., & Tyler, T.R. 2009. Testing and expanding the group engagement model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94: 445–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0013935CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bobocel, D.R., & Zdaniuk, A. 2005. How can explanations be used to foster organizational justice? In Greenberg, J., & Colquitt, J.A. (Eds.), Handbook of organizational justice: 469–98. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Braithwaite, J. 1999. Restorative justice: Assessing optimistic and pessimistic accounts. In Tonry, M. (Ed.), Crime and justice: A review of research, vol. 25: 1–127. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Braithwaite, J. 2002. Restorative justice and responsive regulation. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Branscombe, N.R., Harvey, M.T., & Schmitt, R.D. 1999. Perceiving pervasive discrimination among African Americans: Implications for group identification and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(1): 135–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.77.1.135CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, R., & Hewstone, M. 2005. An integrative theory of intergroup contact. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 37: 255–343. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(05)37005-5CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Christie, N. 1977. Conflicts as property. British Journal of Criminology, 17: 1–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crocker, J., & Canevello, A. 2012. Consequences of self-image and compassionate goals. In Devine, P.G., & Plant, A. (Eds.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology: vol. 45: 229–77. New York: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Cropanzano, R., Byrne, Z.S., Bobocel, D.R., & Rupp, D.R. 2001. Moral virtues, fairness heuristics, social entities, and other denizens of organizational justice. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 58: 164–209. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jvbe.2001.1791CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cropanzano, R., Goldman, B., & Folger, R. 2003. Deontic justice: The role of moral principles in workplace fairness. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 24(8): 1019–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/job.228CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cropanzano, R., & Rupp, D.E. 2002. Some reflections on the morality of organizational justice. In Gilliland, S., Steiner, D., & Skarlicki, D. (Eds.), Theoretical and cultural perspectives on organizational justice: vol. 2: 225–78. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishers.Google Scholar
Cropanzano, R., Rupp, D.E., Mohler, C.J., & Schminke, M. 2001. Three roads to organizational justice. In Ferris, J. (Ed.), Research in personnel and human resource management: vol. 20: 1–113. New York: JAI.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daly, K. 2002. Restorative justice: The real story. Punishment and Society 4(1): 55–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/14624740222228464CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Darby, B.W., & Schlenker, B.R. 1982. Children’s reactions to apologies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4: 742–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.43.4.742CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Darley, J.M., & Pittman, T.S. 2003. The psychology of compensatory and retributive justice. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 7: 324–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/S15327957PSPR0704_05CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, M.H., Conklin, L., Smith, A., & Luce, C. 1996. Effect of perspective taking on the cognitive representation of persons: A merging of self and other. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70: 713–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.4.713CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. 2000. The “what” and the “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11: 227–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Cremer, D. 2002. Respect and cooperation in social dilemmas: The importance of feeling included. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28: 1335–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/014616702236830CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Cremer, D., & Blader, S.L. 2006. Why do people care about procedural fairness? The importance of belongingness in responding and attending to procedures. European Journal of Social Psychology, 36(2): 211–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.290CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Cremer, D., & Tyler, T.R. 2005. Managing group behavior: The interplay between procedural justice, sense of self, and cooperation. Advances in experimental social psychology, 37: 151–218. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(05)37003-1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dirks, K.T., Lewicki, R.J., Zaheer, A. 2009. Repairing relationships within and between organizations: Building a conceptual foundation. Academy of Management Review, 34: 68–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/AMR.2009.35713285CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Djurkovic, N., McCormack, D., & Casimir, G. 2006. Neuroticism and the psychosomatic model of workplace bullying. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 21: 73–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02683940610643224CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Durkheim, E. 1964. The division of labor in society (Simpson, G., Trans.). Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press. (Original work published 1902).Google Scholar
Edmondson, A. 1999. Psychological safety and learning behavior in work teams. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44(2): 350–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2666999CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Einarsen, S., & Raknes, B.I. 1997. Harassment in the workplace and the victimization of men. Violence and Victims, 12: 247–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Exline, J.J., & Baumeister, R.F. 2000. Expressing forgiveness and repentance: Benefits and barriers. In McCullough, M.E., Pargament, K., & Thoresen, C. (Eds.), Forgiveness: Theory, research, and practice: 133–55. New York: Guilford.Google Scholar
Exline, J.J., Worthington, E.L., Hill, P., & McCullough, M.E. 2003. Forgiveness and justice: A research agenda for social and personality psychology. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 7(4): 337–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/S15327957PSPR0704_06CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fehr, R., & Gelfand, M.J. 2010. When apologies work: How matching apology components to victims' self-construals facilitates forgiveness. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 113: 37–50http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2010.04.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fehr, R., & Gelfand, M.J. 2012. The forgiving organization: A multilevel model of forgiveness at work. Academy of Management Review, 37: 664–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/amr.2010.0497CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Festinger, L. 1957. A theory of cognitive dissonance. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press. (Original work published 1902).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Folger, R. 1998. Fairness as a moral virtue. In Schminke, M. (Ed.), Managerial ethics: Moral management of people and processes: 13–34. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.Google Scholar
Foster, C.A., & Rusbult, C.E. 1999. Injustice and power seeking. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25: 834–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167299025007006CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gaertner, S.L., & Dovidio, J.F. 2000. Reducing intergroup bias: The common ingroup identity model. New York: Psychology Press. (Original work published 1902).Google Scholar
Goodstein, J., & Aquino, K. 2010. And restorative justice for all: Redemption, forgiveness, and reintegration in organizations. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31: 624–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/job.632CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodstein, J.D., & Butterfield, K.D. 2010. Extending the horizon of business ethics: Restorative justice and the aftermath of unethical behavior. Business Ethics Quarterly, 20: 453–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/beq201020330CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodwin, C., & Ross, I. 1992. Consumer responses to service failures: Influence of procedural and interactional fairness perceptions. Journal of Business Research, 25: 149–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0148-2963(92)90014-3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenberg, J. 1993. Stealing in the name of justice: Informational and interpersonal moderators of theft reactions to underpayment inequity. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 54: 81–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1993.1004CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenberg, J. 2006. Losing sleep over organizational injustice: Attenuating insomniac reactions to underpayment inequity with supervisory training in interactional justice. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91: 58–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.91.1.58CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gromet, D.M., & Darley, J.M. 2006. Restoration and retribution: How including retributive components affects the acceptability of restorative justice procedures. Social Justice Research, 19(4): 395–432. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11211-006-0023-7CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gromet, D.M., & Okimoto, T.G. 2014. Back into the fold: The influence of offender amends and victim forgiveness on peer reintegration. Business Ethics Quarterly, 24: 411–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/beq20147814CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gromet, D.M., Okimoto, T.G., Wenzel, M., & Darley, J.M. 2012. A victim-centered approach to justice? Victim satisfaction effects on third-party punishments. Law and Human Behavior, 36: 375–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0093922CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haslam, S.A. 2004. Psychology in organizations: The social identity approach (2nd ed.). London: Sage.Google Scholar
Haslam, S.A., McGarty, C., & Turner, J.C. 1996. Salient group memberships and persuasion: The role of social identity in the validation of beliefs. In Nye, J.L., & Brower, A.M. (Eds.), What’s social about social cognition? Research on socially shared cognition in small groups: 29–56. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781483327648.n2CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haslam, S.A., Reicher, S.D., & Platow, M.J. 2011. The new psychology of leadership: Identity, influence and power. London: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Heider, F. 1958. The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York: Wiley.http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/10628-000CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hogg, M.A. 1993. Group cohesiveness: A critical review and some new directions. European Review of Social Psychology, 4: 85–111. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14792779343000031CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hogg, M.A., Terry, D.J. 2000. Social identity and self-categorization processes in organizational contexts. Academy of Management Review, 25: 121–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14792779343000031CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hume, D. 1951. A treatise of human nature. Oxford: Clarendon Press. (Original work published 1739).Google Scholar
Jehn, K. 1995. A multimethod examination of the benefits and detriments of intragroup conflict. Administrative Science Quarterly, 40: 245–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2393638CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kidder, D.L. 2007. Restorative justice: Not “rights” but the right way to heal relationships at work. The International Journal of Conflict Management, 18: 4–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/10444060710759291Google Scholar
Koper, G., Van Knippenberg, D., Bouhuijs, F., Vermunt, R., & Wilke, H. 1993. Procedural fairness and self-esteem. European Journal of Social Psychology, 23: 313–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420230307CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kramer, R.M. 1993. Cooperation and organizational identification. In Murnigham, J.K. (Ed.), Social Psychology in Organizations: Advances in Theory and Practice: 244–68. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Latimer, J., Dowden, C., & Muise, D. 2005. The effectiveness of restorative justice practices: A meta-analysis. The Prison Journal, 85: 127–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0032885505276969CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leach, C.W., Ellemers, N., & Barreto, M. 2007. Group virtue: The importance of morality (vs. competence and sociability) in the positive evaluation of ingroups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93: 234–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.93.2.234CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lecky, P. 1945. Self-consistency: A theory of personality. New York: Island Press.Google Scholar
Lewicki, R.J., & Bunker, B.B. 1996. Developing and maintaining trust in work relationships. In Kramer, R.M., & Tyler, T.R. (Ed.), Trust in organizations: Frontiers of theory and research: 114–39. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lind, E.A., & Tyler, T.R. 1988. The social psychology of procedural justice. New York: Plenum. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-2115-4CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maner, J.K., Luce, C.L., Neuberg, S.L., Cialdini, R.B., Brown, S., & Sagarin, B.J. 2002. The effects of perspective taking on motivations for helping: Still no evidence for altruism. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(11): 1601–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/014616702237586CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mayer, R.C., Davis, J.H., & Schoorman, F.D. 1995. An integrative model of organizational trust. Academy of Management Review, 20(3): 709–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McAllister, D.J. 1995. Affect-and cognition-based trust as foundations for interpersonal cooperation in organizations. The Academy of Management Journal, 38(1): 24–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/256727Google Scholar
McCullough, M.E., Fincham, F.D., & Tsang, J. 2003. The effects of perspective taking on motivations for helping: Still no evidence for altruism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(11): 540–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.3.540CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCullough, M.E., Rachal, K.C., Sandage, S.J., Worthington, E.L. Jr, Brown, S.W., & Hight, T.L. 1998. Interpersonal forgiving in close relationships: Theoretical elaboration and measurement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(6): 1586–1603. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.75.6.1586CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCullough, M.E., Root, L.M., & Cohen, A.D. 2006. Writing about the benefits of an interpersonal transgression facilitates forgiveness. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74(5): 887–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.74.5.887CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGarty, C., Turner, J.C., Oakes, P.J., & Haslam, M.A. 1993. The creation of uncertainty in the influence process: The roles of stimulus information and disagreement with similar others. European Journal of Social Psychology, 23: 17–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420230103CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mikula, G. 1994. Perspective-related differences in interpretations of injustice by victims and victimizers: A test with close relationships. In Lerner, M.J., & Mikula, G. (Eds.), Entitlement and the affectional bond: Justice in close relationships: 175–203. New York: Plenum Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0984-8_8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mikula, G., & Wenzel, M. 2000. Justice and social conflict. International Journal of Psychology, 35(35): 126–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/002075900399420CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, D.T. 2001. Disrespect and the experience of injustice. Annual Review of Psychology, 52: 527–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.527CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, D.T., & Vidmar, N. 1981. The social psychology of punishment reactions. In Lerner, M.J. and Lerner, S.C. (Eds.), The justice motive in social behavior. New York: Academic Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0429-4_8Google Scholar
Mummendey, A., & Otten, S. 1989. Perspective-specific differences in the segmentation and evaluation of aggressive interaction sequences. European Journal of Social Psychology, 19(1): 23–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420190104CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murphy, J.G., & Hampton, J. 1988. Forgiveness and mercy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511625121CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nagin, D.S. 1998. Criminal deterrence research at the outset of the twenty-first century. Crime and Justice, 23: 1–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/449268CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Okimoto, T.G. 2008. Outcomes as affirmation of membership value: Monetary compensation as an administrative response to procedural injustice. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44: 1270–1282. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/jjesp.2008.04.009CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Okimoto, T.G. 2009. The moderating and mediating role of group identification in observers’reactions to intragroup disrespect. European Journal of Social Psychology, 39(1): 69–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.474CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Okimoto, T.G., & Wenzel, M. 2008. The symbolic meaning of transgressions: Towards a unifying framework of justice restoration. Advances in Group Processes, 25: 291–326. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0882-6145(08)25004-6CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Okimoto, T.G., & Wenzel, M. 2009. Punishment as restoration of group and offender values following a transgression: Value consensus through symbolic labelling and offender reform. European Journal of Social Psychology, 39: 346–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.537CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Okimoto, T.G., & Wenzel, M. 2010. The symbolic identity implications of inter and intra-group transgressions. European Journal of Social Psychology, 40: 552–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.704CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Okimoto, T.G., Wenzel, M., & Feather, N.T. 2012. Retribution and restoration as general orientations toward justice. European Journal of Personality, 26: 255–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/per.831CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Okimoto, T.G., Wenzel, M., & Hedrick, K. 2013. Refusing to apologize can have psychological benefits (and we issue no mea culpa for this research finding). European Journal of Social Psychology, 43: 22–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.1901CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Okimoto, T.G., Wenzel, M., & Platow, M.J. 2010. Restorative justice: Seeking a shared identity in dynamic intragroup contexts. Research on managing groups and teams, 13: 205–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/S1534-0856(2010)0000013011CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Otten, S., Mummendey, A., & Wenzel, M. 1995. Evaluation of aggressive interactions in interpersonal and intergroup contexts. Aggressive Behavior, 21(3): 205–24.http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1098-2337(1995)21:3<205::AID-AB2480210304>3.0.CO;2-43.0.CO;2-4>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Palanski, M.E. 2012. Forgiveness and reconciliation in the workplace: A multi-level perspective and research agenda. Journal of Business Ethics, 109: 275–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10551-011-1125-1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reb, J., Goldman, B.M., Kray, L.J. & Cropanzano, R. 2006. Different wrongs, different remedies? Reactions to organizational remedies after procedural and interactional injustice. Personnel Psychology, 59: 31–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2006.00773.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reicher, S., Haslam, S.A., & Hopkins, N. 2005. Social identity and the dynamics of leadership: Leaders and followers as collaborative agents in the transformation of social reality. The Leadership Quarterly, 16(4): 547–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016Zj.leaqua.2005.06.007CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robinson, S.L. 1996. Trust and breach of the psychological contract. Administrative Science Quarterly, 41(4): 574–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2393868CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roche, D. 2003. Accountability in restorative justice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rousseau, D.M. 1989. Psychological and implied contracts in organizations. Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 2: 121–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01384942CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scheff, T. 1994. Bloody revenge. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Schein, E.H. 1999. Process consultation revisited. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley Longman.Google Scholar
Schlenker, B.R., & Darby, B.W. 1981. The use of apologies in social predicaments. Social Psychology Quarterly, 44: 271–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3033840CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmitt, M., Gollwitzer, M., Forster, N., & Montada, L. 2004. Effects of objective and subjective account components on forgivings. The Journal of Social Psychology, 144: 465–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.3200/SOCP.144.5.465-486CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scobie, E.D., & Scobie, G.E.W. 1998. Damaging events: The perceived need for forgiveness. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 28: 373–401. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1468-5914.00081CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shao, R., Aquino, K., & Freeman, D. 2008. Beyond moral reasoning: A review of moral identity research and its implications for business ethics. Business Ethics Quarterly, 18: 513–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/beq200818436CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sherman, D.K., & Cohen, J.L. 2006. The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory. In Zanna, M.P. (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology, vol. 38: 183–242. San Diego: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Shnabel, N., & Nadler, A. 2008. A needs-based model of reconciliation: Satisfying the differential emotional needs of victim and perpetrator as a key to promoting reconciliation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94: 116–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.94.1.116CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shotter, J. 1989. Rhetoric and the recovery of civil society. Economy and Society, 18: 149–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03085148900000008CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simon, B., & Stürmer, S. 2003. Respect for group members: Intragroup determinants of collective identification and group-serving behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29(2): 183–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167202239043CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simon, B., & Stürmer, S. 2005. In search of the active ingredient of respect: A closer look at the role of acceptance. European Journal of Social Psychology, 35(6): 809–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.272CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skarlicki, D.P., & Kulik, C.T. 2004. Third-party reactions to employee (mis)treatment: A justice perspective. Research in Organizational Behavior, 26: 183–229. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0191-3085(04)26005-1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skitka, L.J. 2003. Of different minds: An accessible identity model of justice reasoning. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 7(4): 286–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/S15327957PSPR0704_02CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skitka, L.J., Bauman, C.W., & Mullen, E. 2008. Morality and justice: An expanded theoretical perspective and empirical review. Advances in group processes, 25: 1–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0882-6145(08)25001-0CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, H.J., Olson, G., Agronick, G., & Tyler, T.R. 2009. Everyday interactions with university authorities: Authority treatment quality, outcome favorability and first year students’ university adjustment. Group Processes-Intergroup Relations, 12: 209–226. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1368430208101057CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steele, C.M. 1988. The psychology of self-affirmation: Sustaining the integrity of the self. In Advances in experimental social psychology: Social psychological studies of the self: Perspectives and programs: vol 21: 261–302: San Diego: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Strang, H. 2002. Repair or revenge: Victims and restorative justice. London: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Strang, H., Sherman, L., Angel, C.M., Woods, D.J., Bennett, S., Newbury-Birch, D., & Inkpen, N. 2006. Victim evaluations of face-to-face restorative justice conferences: A quasi-experimental analysis. Journal of Social Issues, 62: 281–306. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2006.00451.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Swann, W.B. Jr. 1983. Self-verification: Bringing social reality into harmony with the self. In Suls, J., & Greenwald, A.G. (Eds.), Psychological perspectives on the self, vol. 2: 33–66. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Thibaut, J.T., & Walker, L. 1975. Procedural justice: A psychological perspective. Hills-dale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Tripp, T., Bies, R., & Aquino, K. 2007. A vigilante model of justice: Revenge, reconciliation, forgiveness, and avoidance. Social Justice Research, 20(1): 10–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11211-007-0030-3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trudel, J., & Reio, T.G. 2011. Managing workplace incivility: The role of conflict management styles-antecedent or antidote? Human Resource Development Quarterly, 22: 395–423. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.20081CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turner, J.C., Hogg, M.A., Oakes, P.J., Reicher, S.D., & Wetherell, M.S. 1987. Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Turner, J.C., Oakes, P.J., Haslam, S.A., & McGarty, C. 1994. Self and collective: Cognition and social context. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20: 454–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167294205002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tyler, T.R., & Blader, S.L. 2000. Cooperation in groups: Procedural justice, social identity, and behavioral engagement. New York: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Tyler, T.R., & Blader, S.L. 2001. Identity and cooperative behavior in groups. Group Processes & Inter-group Relations, 4(3): 207–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1368430201004003003CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tyler, T.R., & Blader, S.L. 2003. The group engagement model: Procedural justice, social identity, and cooperative behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 7: 349–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/S15327957PSPR0704_07CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tyler, T.R., & Boeckmann, R.J. 1997. Three strikes and you are out, but why? The psychology of public support for punishing rule breakers. Law and Society Review, 31: 237–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3053926CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tyler, T.R., & Lind, E.A. 1992. A relational model of authority in groups. In Zanna, M. (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology, vol. 25: pp. 115–91. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Tyler, T.R., & Smith, H.J. 1998. Social justice and social movements. In Gilbert, D.T., Fiske, S.T., & Lindzey, G. (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology, vols. 1 and 2 (4th ed.): 595–629. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Van Lange, P.A.M. 1999. The pursuit of joint outcomes and equality in outcomes: An integrative model of social value orientation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77: 337–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.77.2337CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Prooijen, J.-W., van den Bos, K., & Wilke, H.A.M. 2002. Procedural justice and status: Status salience as antecedent of procedural fairness effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(6): 1353–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.83.6.1353CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Prooijen, J.-W., van den Bos, K., & Wilke, H.A.M. 2005. Procedural justice and intragroup status: Knowing where we stand in a group enhances reactions to procedures. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 41(6): 664–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/jjesp.2004.12.003CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vidmar, N. 2000. Retribution and revenge. In Sanders, J., & Hamilton, V.L. (Eds.), Handbook of justice research in law: 31–63. New York: Kluwer/Plenum.Google Scholar
Weiner, B. 1985. An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. Psychological Review, 92: 548–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.92.4.548CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wenzel, M., & Okimoto, T.G. 2012. The varying meaning of forgiveness: Relationship closeness moderates how forgiveness affects feelings of justicen. European Journal of Social Psychology, 42: 420–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.1850CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wenzel, M., & Okimoto, T.G. 2014. On the relationship between justice and forgiveness: Are all forms of justice made equal? British Journal of Social Psychology. Manuscript in press, published online in early view. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12040CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wenzel, M., Okimoto, T.G., & Cameron, K. 2012. Do retributive and restorative justice processes address different symbolic concerns? Critical Criminology, 20: 25–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10612-011-9147-7CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wenzel, M., Okimoto, T.G., Feather, N.T., & Platow, M.J. 2008. Retributive and restorative justice. Law and Human Behavior, 32: 375–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10979-007-9116-6CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wenzel, M., Okimoto, T.G., Feather, N.T., & Platow, M.J. 2010. Justice through consensus: Shared identity and the preference for a restorative notion of justice. European Journal of Social Psychology, 40: 909–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.657CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Witvliet, C.N.O., Ludwig, T, & van der Laan, K. 2001. Granting forgiveness or harboring grudges: Implications for emotion, physiology, and health. Psychological Science, 12: 117–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00320CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woodyatt, L., & Wenzel, M. 2013. The psychological immune response in the face of transgressions: Pseudo self-forgiveness and threat to belonging. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49: 951–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/jjesp.2013.05.016CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Worthington, E.L. Jr 2006. Forgiveness and reconciliation: Theory and application. New York: Routledge/Taylor-Francis Group.Google Scholar
Zechmeister, J.S., & Romero, C. 2002. Victim and offender accounts of interpersonal conflict: Autobiographical narratives of forgiveness and unforgiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82: 675–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.4.675CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed