¹ The origins, characteristics and diffusion of the madrasa have been the subject of much debate among Islamicists in the twentieth century; cf. Pedersen, J. (G. Makdisi), ‘Madrasa’, in the Encyclopedia of Islam, 2nd. ed. (hereafter EI ²)Google Scholar; Pedersen, J., ‘Some aspects of the history of the madrasa’, Islamic Culture, 3, 1929, 525–537Google Scholar; Makdisi, George, ‘Muslim institutions of learning in eleventh-century Baghdad’, BSOAS, 24/1, 1961, 1–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Tibawi, A. L., ‘Origins and character of al-madrasah’, BSOAS, 25/2, 1962, 225–238CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Cairene madrasas and their curricula have been considered in Petry, Carl F., The civilian elite of Cairo in the Later Middle Ages (Princeton, 1981), 138–139Google Scholar. Questions of the architectural origins and the typology of the madrasa are discussed in R. Hillenbrand, ‘Madrasa—architecture’, EI ².

² A point emphasized in the last century by one of the few non-Muslims to have had direct experience of Mecca; Hurgronje, C. Snouck, Mekka in the latter part of the nineteenth century, (tr.) Monahan, J. H. (Leiden, 1970), 172Google Scholar.

³ With the exception of a limited number of foundation inscriptions preserved in the Museum of the Great Mosque (Matḥaf al-Ḥaram al-Makkī) in Mecca, and mentioned, with photographs, in Muḥammad Fahd ՙAbd Allāh al-Faՙr, Taṭawwur al-kitābāt wa'l-nuqūsh fī al-Ḥijāz mundhu fajr al-Islām ḥattā muntaṣaf al-qarn al-sābīՙ al-Hijrī (Jedda, 1405/1984), passim.

⁴ cf. ՙAnqāwī, ՙAbd Allāh ՙAqīl, 'al-Mu'arrikh Taqī al-Dīn al-Fāsī wa kitībuhu “Shifā' al-gharām bi-akhbār al-Balad al-Ḥarām”’, Dirāsāt ta'rīkh al-Jazīra al-ՙArabiyya, 1, part 2, Maṣddir ta'rīkh al-Jazīra al-ՙArabiyya, (ed.) Abdalla, Abdelgadir M., al-Sakkar, Sami and Mortel, Richard T. (Riyadh, 1979), 61–67Google Scholar.

⁵ cf. al-Rashīd, Nāṣir b. Saՙd, ‘Banū Fahd, mu'arrikhū Makka al-Mukarrama wa'1-taՙrīfbi-makhṭūt al-Najm b. Fahd “Itḥāf al-warā fi-akhbār Umm al-Qurā”’, Dirāsāt ta'rīkh al-Jazīra al-ՙArabiyya, part 2, 69–90Google Scholar.

⁶ al-Dīn, Taqī Muḥammad b. Aḥmad al-Fāsī, Shifā' al-gharām bi-akhbār al-Balad al-Ḥarām (Beirut, 1985), I, 526–527Google Scholar; idem, al-ՙIqda l-thamīn fī ta'rīkh al-Balad al-Amīn (Cairo, 1959–69), I, 118.

⁷ al-Fāsī, Shifī', I, 383; Ibrāhīm Rifՙat, Mir'āt al-Ḥaramayn (Cairo, 1344/1925), I, 233; El-Hawary, Hassan Mohammed and Wiet, Gaston, Matériaux pour un Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarum, part 4, Arabie, inscriptions et monuments de la Mècque: Ḥaram et Kaՙba, I, fasc. 1 (Cairo, 1985), 13Google Scholar, 14, 60.

⁸ Arsūf was a Syrian coastal town located between Qayṣariyya and Yāfā; cf. al-Hamawī, Yāqūt b. ՙAbd Allāh, Muՙjam al-buldān (Beirut, n.d.), I, 151Google Scholar.

⁹ al-Dīn, Zakī Abū Muḥammad ՙAbd al-ՙAẓīm al-Mundhirī, al-Takmila li-wafayāt al-naqala (Beirut, n.d.), I, 277Google Scholar.

¹⁰ al-Fāsī, Shifā', I, 529; idem, ՙIqd, I, 117, 119; VI, 34; al-Qādir, ՙAbd b. Muḥammad al-Nuՙaymī, al-Dāris fī ta'rīkh al-madāris (Damascus, 1948), I, 526Google Scholar; Muḥammad, Abū ՙAbd Allāh al-Ṭayyib, Bā Makhrama, Ta'rīkh Thaghr ՙAdan (Leiden, 1936), II, 131Google Scholar.

¹¹ al-Fāsī, ՙIqd, VI, 34, 35; also relevant is Hurgronje, Mekka, 172, who claims that the term madrasa had come to denote ‘a fine house near the mosque and the population at large had lost all idea of its original meaning.’

¹² al-Dīn, ՙImād Ismāՙīl b. Kathīr, al-Biāaya wa'l-nihāya fī al-ta'rīkh (Cairo, 1335–38 A.H.), XII, 309–310Google Scholar; al-Fāsī, ՙIqd, IV, 34–5.

¹³ Makhrama, Bā, Ta'rīkh, II, 132Google Scholar.

¹⁴ al-Fāsī, ՙIqd, VI, 34, where al-Zanjīlī is described as the ‘amir of the two Ḥarams’—i.e., Mecca and Madina, in the original waqf document.

¹⁵ al-Fāsī, ՙIqd, VI, 35; Bā Makhrama, Ta'rīkh, II, 132; al-Nuՙaymī, Dāris, I, 526, where the year of his death is fixed as 626/1229, and it is also mentioned that he endowed another college in Damascus.

¹⁶ al-Fāsī, ՙIqd, I, 117; VIII, 261–2.

¹⁷ al-Walīd, Abū Muḥammad b. ՙAbd Allāh al-Azraqī, Akhbār Makka wa mā jā'a fīhā min al-āthār, 3rd. ed. (Mecca, 1978), II, 266Google Scholar; al-Fāsī, Shifā', I, 364; El-Hawary and Wiet, Matériaux, 76.

¹⁸ For the original text with analysis, cf. al-Faՙr, , Taṭawwur, 323–328Google Scholar.

¹⁹ ibid., 326–7.

²⁰ Rifՙat, , Mir'āt, I, 231Google Scholar; El-Hawary, and Wiet, , Matériaux, 55Google Scholar.

²¹ Yāqūt, , Muՙjam, I, 138Google Scholar; al-Mundhirī, , Takmila, III, 354Google Scholar; al-ՙAbbās, Abū Shams al-Dīn Aḥmad b. Muḥammad b. Khallikān, Wafayāt al-aՙyān wa anbā' abnā' al-zamān (Beirut, 1968–1972), IV, 113–120Google Scholar; al-Fāsī, ՙIqd, VII, 100–7; al-Maḥāsin, Abū Jamāl al-Dīn Yūsuf b. Taghrī Birdī, al-Nujūm al-zāhira fī mulūk Misr wa'l-Qāhira (Cairo, ?–1972), VI, 282Google Scholar; al-Falāh, Abū ՙAbd al-Muḥsin b. al-ՙImād al-Ḥanbalī, Ṣhadharāt al-dhahab fī akhbār man dhahaba (Beirut, n.d.), V, 138–140Google Scholar; al-Dīn, Khayr al-Ziriklī, al-AUlām (Beirut, 1980), V, 98Google Scholar.

²² al-Fāsī, , Shifā', I, 527Google Scholar.

²³ This estimate is based on internal evidence in the work itself; cf. Shifā', II, 335, for the latest date mentioned therein.

²⁴ cf. V. Minorsky, ‘Nihāwand’, EI. ¹

²⁵ Rifՙat, , Mir'at, I, 234Google Scholar; El-Hawary, and Wiet, , Matériaux, 61Google Scholar.

²⁶ al-Fāsī, , Shifā', I, 526Google Scholar; idem, ՙIqd, I, 118.

²⁷ al-Fāsī, , ՙIqd, VIII, 133Google Scholar; El-Hawary, and Wiet, , Matériaux, 12, 13, 14Google Scholar.

²⁸ al-Fāsī, , Shifā', I, 527Google Scholar; idem, ՙIqd, I, 118; V, 335.

²⁹ Badr, al-Amir al-Dīn Muḥammad b. Ḥātim al-Yāmī, al-Simṭ al-ghālī al-thaman fī akhbār al-mulūk min al-Ghuzz bi-l-Yaman (London, 1974), 220–221Google Scholar; al-Khazrajī, ՙAlī b. al-Ḥasan, al-ՙUqūd al-Lu' lu' iyya fī ta'rīkh al-dawla al-Rasūliyya (Cairo, 1911–1914), I, 69, 77Google Scholar; al-Fāsī, , ՙIqd, IV, 378Google Scholar; VI, 347; Mortel, Richard T., al-Aḥwāl al-siyāsiyya wa'l-iqtisādiyya bi-Makka fī 'l-ՙaṣr al-Mamlūkī (Riyadh 1985), 49–50Google Scholar; cf. also the biographical notice for al-Shallāaḥ in al-Fāsī, , ՙIqd, VIII, 160, 175–6Google Scholar.

³⁰ al-Fāsī, , Shifā', I, 523Google Scholar; idem, ՙIqd, I, 84.

³¹ For further details, cf. Mortel, , Ahwāl, 46–50, 53–6, 59–63, 73Google Scholar.

³² al-Khazrajī, , ՙUqūd, I, 84Google Scholar; al-Fāsī, ՙiqd, VI, 348Google Scholar; Makhrama, Bā, Ta'rīkh, II, 179Google Scholar; al-Qādir, ՙAbd b. Muḥammad al-Anṣārī al-Jazīrī, al-Durar al-farā'id al-munaẓẓama fī akhbār al-ḥājj wa ṭartīq Makka al-Mu'aẓẓama (Riyadh, 1983), I, 595Google Scholar.

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³⁴ al-Tujībī, al-Qāsim b. Yūsuf al-Sabtī, Mustafād al-riḥla wa'l-ightirāb (Tunis, 1975), 246Google Scholar.

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³⁷ al-Fāsī, , ՙIqd, I, 117.Google Scholar

³⁸ For the site, cf. al-Fāsī, , Shifā', I, 384Google Scholar. al-ՙAjala, Dār is described in al-Azraqī, Akhbār Makka, II, 252Google Scholar; and the period of ՙAbd Allāh b. al-Zubayr's control of Mecca has been discussed in Kennedy, Hugh, The Prophet and the age of the caliphates: the Islamic Near East from the sixth to the eleventh century (London, 1986), 89–98Google Scholar.

³⁹ El-Hawary, and Wiet, , Matériaux, 61Google Scholar.

⁴⁰ al-Fāsī, , Shifā', I, 34Google Scholar.

⁴¹ al-Fāsī, , ՙIqd, VII, 485Google Scholar; Birdī, Ibn Taghrī, Manhal, II, 308Google Scholar.

⁴² For al-Makkī, cf. Birdī, Ibn Taghrī, Manhal, II, 308, esp. n. 2Google Scholar.

⁴³ ibid., II, 308.

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⁴⁵ Birdī, Ibn Taghrī, Manhal, II, 308Google Scholar.

⁴⁶ al-Khazrajī, ՙUqūd, II, 68, mentions that this madrasa was founded in the following year, 740/1339–40; however, al-Fāsī asserts that the later date was ‘most certainly erroneous’; cf. ՙIqd, VI, 158.

⁴⁷ al-Khazrajī, , ՙUqud, II, 68Google Scholar; al-Fāsī, , Shifā', I, 524Google Scholar; idem, ՙIqd, I, 118; VI, 158; Birdī, Ibn Taghrī, Nujūm, XI, 91Google Scholar; al-Dīn, Najm ՙUmar b. Muḥammad b. Fahd, Itḥāf al-warā bi-akhbār Umm al-Qurā (Jedda, n.d.), III, 217–218Google Scholar.

⁴⁸ al-Fāsī, , Shifā', I, 382Google Scholar; Rifՙat, , Mir'at, I, 232Google Scholar.

⁴⁹ al-Fāsī, , ՙIqd, VI, 158Google Scholar; Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf III, 217–218Google Scholar.

⁵⁰ al-Khazrajī, , ՙUqūd, II, 68Google Scholar.

⁵¹ ibid., II, 159; al-Fāsī, Shifā', I, 523; Birdī, Ibn Taghrī, Nujūm, XI, 146.Google Scholar

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⁵⁴ cf. my article, ‘Zaydī Shīՙism and the Ḥasanid Sharifs of Mecca’, International Journal of Middle East Studies, 19, 1987, 455–472.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁵⁵ For the amirate of ՙAjlān b. Rumaytha, cf. Mortel, , Aḥwāl, 91–106, 177–8; idem, ‘Zaydī Shīՙism’, 466–7.Google Scholar

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⁵⁷ al-Fāsī, , ՙIqd, VI, 71.Google Scholar

⁵⁸ al-Fāsī, , Shifī', I, 383Google Scholar; Rifՙat, , Mir'āt, I, 232Google Scholar; El-Hawary, and Wiet, , Matériaux, 57.Google Scholar

⁵⁹ cf. al-Fāsī, , ՙIqd, III, 405–406.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf, III, 368–369.Google Scholar

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⁶² al-Fāsī, , ՙIqd, III, 405.Google Scholar

⁶³ The reign of Ḥasan b. ՙAjlān, which culminated in the de facto extension of Mamluk sovereignty to the amirate of Mecca, has been considered at length in Mortel, , Aḥwāl, 119–140Google Scholar; al-Sibāՙī, Aḥmad, Ta'rīkh Makka, 4th. ed. (Mecca, 1979), 290–300Google Scholar; also al-Fāsī, , ՙIqd, IV, 86–155Google Scholar, for a detailed contemporary biography.

⁶⁴ al-Fāsī, , ՙIqd, IV, 96.Google Scholar

⁶⁵ Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf, III, 423.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ The contemporary sources invariably have ‘Banjaliyya’, but I have substituted ‘g’ for ‘j’ to reflect what certainly must have been the original pronunciation.

⁶⁷ cf. Ali, Muhammad Mohar, History of the Muslims of Bengal, vol. Ia, Muslim rule in Bengal (600–1170/1203–1757) (Riyadh, 1985), 140–146Google Scholar; the madrasa is mentioned pp. 143–4.

⁶⁸ al-Fāsī, , Shifā', I, 524Google Scholar; Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf III, 481Google Scholar. The mithqāl refers to a theoretical gold standard coin weighing 4.25 grams, or to a real gold dinar whose weight was intended to be 4.25 grams; cf. Bacharach, Jere L., ‘The dinar versus the ducat’, International Journal of Middle East Studies, 4, 1973, 80, 83–85.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ al-Fāsī, , Shifā', I, 524–525.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ ibid., I, 525; Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf, III, 486.Google Scholar

⁷¹ al-Fāsī, , Shifā', I, 525Google Scholar; Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf III, 486.Google Scholar

⁷² al-Dīn, Shams Muhammad b. ՙAbd al-Raḥmān al-Sakhāwī, al-Ḍaw' al-lāmiՙ li-ahl al-qarn al-tāsiՙ (Beirut, n.d.), VIII, 92–95.Google Scholar

⁷³ al-Fāsī, , ՙIqd, III, 168–170Google Scholar; al-Sakhāwī, , Daw', II, 179.Google Scholar

⁷⁴ cf. his autobiography in ՙIqd, I, 331–363Google Scholar; biographical notice in al-Sakhāwī, , Ḍaw', VII, 18–20.Google Scholar

⁷⁵ al-Dīn, Najm ՙUmar b. Fahd, Muՙjam al-shuyūkh (Riyadh, n.d.), 144–145Google Scholar; al-Sakhāwī, , Ḍaw', IV, 333–334.Google Scholar

⁷⁶ al-Fāsī, , Shifā', I, 525Google Scholar; surprisingly, he fails to mention the timings of his own lectures in the Bangaliyya.

⁷⁷ ibid.

⁷⁸ ibid. For al-Rikānī, cf. al-Bilādī, ՙAtiq b. Ghayth, Muՙjam maՙālim at-Ḥijāz (Mecca, 1978–1982), IV, 67–68.Google Scholar

⁷⁹ al-Fāsī, , Shifā', I, 526Google Scholar; the house in question, known as Dār Umm Hāni', was purported to have been the residence of a paternal aunt of the Prophet Muḥammad; cf. al-Azraqī, , Akhbār Makka, II, 394.Google Scholar

⁸⁰ al-Fāsī, , Shifā', I, 526Google Scholar; Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf III, 486.Google Scholar

⁸¹ The name of the college variously occurs as ‘Kalbarqiyya’ (Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf III, 643Google Scholar); ‘Kalbarjiyya’ (ibid., IV, 24); the form used here represents an attempt at approximating the original vocalization.

⁸² cf. J. Burton-Page, ‘Gulbarga’, in EI ².

⁸³ For further information on Ahmad Shāh and the Bahmanids in general, cf. H. K. Sherwani, ‘Bahmanis’, in EI ²; Sastri, Nilaknata, A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar, 4th. ed. (Madras, 1976), 248–251Google Scholar, 490–1; Sherwani, H. K. and Joshi, P. M. (ed.), History of medieval Deccan (1295–1724), I (Hyderabad, 1973), 164–170.Google Scholar

⁸⁴ al-Sakhāwī, , Ḍaw', I, 210; V, 93.Google Scholar

⁸⁵ Trade between India and the Hijaz during the ninth/fifteenth century has been discussed at length in Mortel, , Aḥwāl, 182–190Google Scholar; idem, ‘Prices in Mecca during the Mamlūk Period’, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 32, 1989, 295–298Google Scholar; idem, ‘The mercantile community of Mecca during the late Mamlūk period’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 3rd. series, 4, part 1 (April 1994), 15–17, 27–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar; idem, ‘Aspects of Mamlūk relations with Jedda during the fifteenth century: the case of Timrāz al-Mu'ayyadī’, Journal of Islamic Studies, 6/1, 1995, 1–13; idem, ‘Taxation in the amirate of Mecca during the medieval period’, BSOAS, 58/1, 1995, 12–16.

⁸⁶ Bayārim, cf. Dozy, Reinhart, Supplément aux dictionnaires arabes (Leiden, 1881), I, 133.Google Scholar

⁸⁷ Shāsh, cf. ibid., I, 802; idem, Dictionnaire détaillé des noms des vêtements chez les Arabes (Amsterdam, 1843), 235–240.Google Scholar

⁸⁸ Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf III, 643Google Scholar; al-Sakhāwī, , Ḍaw', I, 210Google Scholar, who mistakenly reported that Aḥmad Shāh had endowed a ribāṭ rather than a madrasa in Mecca.

⁸⁹ cf. Rifՙat, , Mir'āt, I, 231Google Scholar; El-Hawary, and Wiet, , Matériaux, 56.Google Scholar

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⁹¹ ibid., IV, 24.

⁹² ibid., IV, 45.

⁹³ ibid., IV, 25.

⁹⁴ cf. his biography in al-Dīn, Taqī Aḥmad b. ՙAlī al-Maqrīzī, al-Sulūk li-ma ՙrifat duwala l-mulūk (Cairo, 1956–1973), IV, 1062Google Scholar; Birdī, Ibn Taghrī, Nujūm, XV, 214–216Google Scholar; al-Jawharī, al-Khaṭīb, ՙAlī b. Dā'ūd al-ṣayrafī, Nuzhat al-nufūs wa'l-abdān fī tawārīkh al-zamān (Cairo, 1970–1973), III, 428Google Scholar; al-Sakhāwī, , Ḍaw', IX, 291–294Google Scholar; al-ՙImād, Ibn, Shadharāt, VII, 241–242.Google Scholar

⁹⁵ cf. his biography in Aḥmad, b. ՙAlī b. Ḥajar al-ՙAsqalānī, Inbā' al-ghumr bi-anbā' al-ՙumr (Cairo, 1969–1972), III, 559Google Scholar; Fahd, Ibri, Itḥāf IV, 86–87Google Scholar; Najm al-Dīn ՙUmar b. Fahd, al-Durr al-kamīn bi-dhayl al-ՙIqd al-thamīn fī ta'nkh al-Baladal-Amīn, MS King Saud University Libraries, Riyadh, no. fā' 113/2, f.141b; al-Sakhāwī, , Ḍaw', V, 93–94.Google Scholar

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⁹⁷ ibid., IV, 59.

⁹⁸ cf. his biography in Birdī, Ibn Taghrī, Nujūm, XV, 552–554Google Scholar; al-Sakhāwī, , Ḍaw', IV, 24–27.Google Scholar

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¹⁰⁰ ibid., IV, 63, 66.

¹⁰¹ cf. his biography in al-Sakhāwī, Ḍaw', IX, 214–16; he also taught in the Bangaliyya, ibid., IX, 214.

¹⁰² ibid., IX, 215.

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¹¹¹ Cf. her biography in al-Sakhāwī, , Ḍaw', XII, 44–45Google Scholar; 'l-Barakāt, Abū Muḥammad b. Aḥmad b. Iyās, Badā'iՙ al-zuhūr fī waqā'iՙ al-duhūr (Cairo, 1982–1984), III, 156–157.Google Scholar

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¹¹³ Cambay is located in the present-day Indian state of Gujarat; for the role it played in the history of Islam in India, cf. S. Maqbul Ahmad, ‘Khambāyat’, EI ².

¹¹⁴ cf. al-Fāsī, , Shifī', I, 538Google Scholar; the hospital (māristān) was originally endowed in 628/1230–31, and later renovated by the Sharif Ḥasan b. ՙAjlān in 816/1413.

¹¹⁵ Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf, IV, 423.Google Scholar

¹¹⁶ ibid., IV, 443.

¹¹⁷ cf. his biographical notice in Ibn Fahd, Durr, f. 155b; al-Sakhāwī, , Ḍaw', VI, 80Google Scholar. The title khawājā was granted to the great merchants of Mecca, presumably by their peers, as a token of high esteem; cf. Mortel, ‘Mercantile community’, 17–21ff.

¹¹⁸ The comments made by Hurgronje on the meaning of the word madrasa in the Mecca of the late nineteenth century are appropriate; cf. Mekka, 172.

¹¹⁹ Relevant aspects of this relationship are conveniently summarized in Mortel, ‘Prices’, 279–88.

¹²⁰ cf. his biography in al-Sakhāwī, , Ḍaw', VIII, 260–262.Google Scholar

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¹²³ cf. al-Fāsī, , Shifā', I, 527Google Scholar; idem, ՙIqd, I, 118.

¹²⁴ Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf, IV, 624.Google Scholar

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¹²⁶ Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf, IV, 620, 624Google Scholar; al-Nahrawālī, Iՙ1ām, 152.

¹²⁷ Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf, IV, 638–639.Google Scholar

¹²⁸ The madrasa incorporated a minaret (al-Nahrawālī, Iՙlām, 152; El-Hawary and Wiet, Matériaux, 62) which can clearly be seen in some old photographs of the Meccan Ḥaram and its environs, such as those contained in Rifՙat Mir'āt.

¹²⁹ Fahd, Ibn, Itḥāf, IV, 647–648.Google Scholar

¹³⁰ al-Nahrawālī, , Iՙlām, 152.Google Scholar

¹³¹ ibid.

¹³² ibid.

¹³³ ibid.; cf. also Hurgronje, Mekka, 172.

¹³⁴ cf. Mortel, , ‘Zaydī Shīՙism’, 467–468.Google Scholar

¹³⁵ Further information on the various aspects of Mamluk-Meccan relations can be found in Mortel, Richard T., ‘The Kiswa: its origins and development from pre-Islamic times until the end of the Mamluk period,’ Ages, 3/2, 1988, 39–46Google Scholar; idem, ‘Prices’, 281–3.

¹³⁶ Commercial contacts between India and the amirate of Mecca have been dealt with in greater detail in Mortel, , Aliwāl, 181–193Google Scholar; idem, ‘Prices’, 293–9; idem, ‘Mercantile community’, 15–17, 27–8; idem, ‘Aspects’, passim; idem, ‘Taxation’, 9–16.