Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-m6dg7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-03T02:00:26.652Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The confidential memorial system of the Ch'ing dynasty reconsidered1

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 February 2009

Pei Huang
Pei Huang
Affiliation:
Youngstown State University, Ohio
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

Students of traditional Chinese political institutions cannot afford to disregard the importance of the Ch'ing confidential memorial system. Essentially, this dynastic institution had existed for centuries, but it reached maturity only in the Ch'ing dynasty. Under this system, government officials in various positions from many regions outside the capital submitted confidential memorials which reached the imperial desk through special channels. After reading and commenting on them in vermilion ink, the ruler returned the memorials to their authors confidentially via the same channels. This system resulted in direct communication between ruler and officials, and under the vigilant Ch'ing emperors, it enhanced imperial autocratic power in several ways

In the traditional Chinese state the ruler, however enlightened or benevolent, was an autocrat. His words were law; his decisions final. Without his sanction, no state affairs or government plans could proceed. His authority could only be circumvented or manipulated within the bureaucratic procedure and for this reason he worked hard to safeguard his authority by keeping a close eye on his officials throughout the empire.

Type
Articles
Information
Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies , Volume 57 , Issue 2 , June 1994 , pp. 329 - 338
Copyright
Copyright © School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 1994

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

2 See Li Hsi Tsou-che (Li Hsi's memorials), ed. pu, Ku-kung po-wu yüan Ming-Ch'ing tangan (Peking, Chung-hua shu-chü , 1976), imperial comment on Memorial #2, KH32/7, 2.Google Scholar

3 I used the phrase ‘secret report’ in the English summary of my ‘Yung-cheng shih-tai ti mi-tsou chih-tu-Ch'ing Shih-tsung chih-shu ti i-tuan’ — (The secret-report system during the Yung-cheng period, 1723–1735: a political practice of Emperor Shih-tsung), Tsing Hua Journal of Chinese studies, n.s., 3/1, 1962, 217–52Google Scholar. For the term ‘personal memorials’, see my ‘Aspects of Ching autocracy: an institutional study, 1644–1735’, ibid., 6/1–2, 1967, 109–16Google Scholar. Wu, Silas H. L. adopted the term ‘palace memorials’ in his ‘The memorial system of the Ch'ing dynasty (1644–1911)’, Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, 27, 1967, 7–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

4 For a study of the writing on the Grand Council, see my The Grand Council of the Ch'ing dynasty: a historiographical study’, BSOAS, XLVIII, 3, 1985, 504–15.Google Scholar

5 Liang's book was expanded by Chu Chih (n.p., 1875, 28 chüan, 6 vols.). For its information on the confidential memorial, see ch. 13, 3a. 14b–15a. 17a: ch. 22, 5a–7a; ch. 27, 5a. The Yang-chi chai ts'ung-lu (Collected notes from the Yang-chi study), by Wu Chen-yü (1792–1870), adopts the same approach. Wu's book is included in Yün-lung, Shen (ed), Chin-tai Chung-kuo shih-liao ts'ung-k'an , no. 22 (Taipei: Wen-hai ch'u-pan she , 1968, 26 chüan; Yü-lu , 10 chūan, 2 vols.). For its data on the confidential memorials, see ch. 4, 5a–6a, ch. 23, 3b–6a.Google Scholar

6 The main book by Chao-lien contains 8 chuan in 4 volumes; its supplement, 2 chuan in 2 volumes (Shanghai: Wen-pao shu-chū 1901.

7 Published through the Office of the Hunan Judicial Commissioner (2 chüan in 2 volumes).

8 Tokyo: Sanseidō 1905. See part 1, 10–11.Google Scholar

9 Peking: Sung-chu chai , 1883.Google Scholar

10 A serial of 46 issues published in 1930–43. The memorials by Wang were included in its second and third issues. For his background and official career, see Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period {1644–1912), (ed.) Arthur W., Hummel (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1944, 2 vols.), 826.Google Scholar

11 See his ‘Ch'ing-tai t'i-pen chih-tu k'ao’ (A critical study of the t'ipen system of the Ch'ing), in (comp.) yüan, Kuo-li ku-kung po-wuWenhsien lun-ts'ung (Collected articles from the Historical Records Office), (Peiping: Kuoli ku-kung po-wu yüan, 1936), 177–89.Google Scholar

12 Teng's article is entitled ‘Ch'ing-tai pen-chang chih-tu kai-t'i wei tsou k'ao’ (‘The change from t'i-pen to tsou-pen in the Manchurian Government’l), Shih-hsüeh chi-k'an (HistoricalJournal), 3, 1937, 321–7. The tsou-pen was officially abolished on the 24th of the first month, the thirteenth year of the Ch'ien-lung period, i.e., 14 January 1749. A further discussion of this matter will be offered below.Google Scholar

13 This collection contains memorials submitted by more than 230 officials, originally published in 1738 in 112 volumes. See my ‘Shuo chu-p'i yü-chih’ (On the memorials with the Yung-cheng Emperor's endorsements in vermilion ink), Ta-lu tsa-chih (Continent Magazine), 18/3, 1959, 9–14.Google Scholar

14 For my article on the confidential memorial system of the Yung-cheng period, see the first citation in n. 3 above.

15 Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, 4, 1939, 12–46 and 5, 1940, 1–71Google Scholar, reprinted in the same authors' Ch'ing administration: three studies (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1960).Google Scholar

16 Their articles cover the political, economic, and social aspects of the Yung-cheng period, and appeared in Tōyōshi kenkyū (Journal of Oriental Researches). For Miyazaki's article, see idem, 15/4, 1957, 1–32.

17 Under the general title Kung-chung tang the National Palace Museum compiled and published in Taipei the following four series of confidential memorials: Kuang-hsü ch'ao tsou-che (‘Secret memorials of the Kuang-hsü period‘), (1973–75, 26 vols.)Google Scholar; K'ang-his ch'ao tsou-che (‘Secret memorials of the K'ang-hsi period’), (1976. 9 vols.)Google Scholar: Yung-cheng ch'ao tsou-che (‘Secret memorials of the Yung-cheng period’), (1977–80, 35 vols.)Google Scholar; Ch'ien-lung ch'ao tsou-che (‘Secret memorials of the Ch'ienlung period’) (1982–, 1– vols.).Google Scholar

The later versions from the Office of the Number One Historical Archives are as follows: K'ang-hsi ch'ao Han-wen chu-p'i tsou-che hui-pien (Collected Chinese confidential memorials of the K'ang-hsi period), (Peking: Tang-an ch'u-pan she, 1984–1985, 8 vols.)Google Scholar; Yung-cheng ch'ao Han-wen chu-p'i tsou-che hui-pien (Collected Chinese confidential memorials of the Yung-cheng period), (Shanghai: Chiang-su ku-chi ch'u-pan she 1986–90, 20 vols.).Google Scholar

18 ‘Ch'ing-tai tsou-che ti hsin kuan-nien’ (A new idea of the Ch'ing memorials), Chung-yang jih-pao (Central Daily News: International Edition), 11 January 1970, 4.Google Scholar

19 See his ‘K'ang-hsi ch'ao tsou-che yüchu-p'i yen-chiu’ (‘Vermilion endorsements in [the] K'ang-hsi period’), Chung-kuo li-shih hsüeh-hui shih-hsüeh chik'an (Bulletin of the Chinese Historical Association), 3, 1971, 127–41.Google Scholar

20 His article of 1974 appears in Shih-huo Monthly, 4/1–2: 13–22Google Scholar, entitled ‘Ch'ing-ch'u tsou-che chih-tu ch'i-yuan k'ao’ (Origins of the early Ch'ing confidential memorials). His other article is ‘Ch'ing Shih-tsung yü tsou-che chih-tu ti fa-chan (‘Emperor Yung-cheng and the development of the memorial system’), Li-shih hsüeh-pao (Bulletin of Historical Research), 4, 1976, 197–220.Google Scholar

21 For Lee's article, see Oriens Extremus, 17, 1970, 125–35.Google Scholar

22 , Will's article, ‘Transmissions secrètes et succession impériale à I'époque mandchoue’, I appeared in T'oung Pao, 58, 1972, 120–36.Google Scholar

23 Tsing Hua Journal of Chinese Studies, n.s., 6/1–2, 1967, 105–49.Google Scholar

24 , Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1974.Google Scholar

25 , Yang's book is entitled Yung-cheng ti chi ch'i mi-che chih-tu yen-chiu (The Yung-cheng Emperor and his confidential memorial system), (Hong Kong: San-lien shu-tien. 1981).Google Scholar

26 Peking: Jen-min ch'u-pan she. 1985; see pp. 250–72.Google Scholar

27 For the article by , Chü, see ‘Ch'ing-tai t'i-tsou wen-shu chih-tu’ (The upward official communication system of the Ch'ing), Ch'ing-shih lun-ts'ung {Collected essays on Ch'ing history), 3, 1982, 218–38.Google Scholar

28 For , Chi's article, ‘Ch'ing-tai t'i-tsou chih-tu yen-ke k'ao-shih' (A study of the Ch'ing memorial system), see Li-shih tang-an (Historical Archives), 3, 1984, 85–91.Google Scholar

29 See ‘Chu-p'i tsou-che chih yu-lai chi ch'i-t'a’ (‘The origin of remarked-in-red memorials to the throne and other questions concerned’), Ku-kung po-wu yüan yüan-k'an (Palace Museum Journal), 1, 1985, 18–22.Google Scholar

Among the articles omitted here are Chin-fu, Chu ‘Ch'ing-tai tsou-che chih-tu t'anlüeh’ (A brief study of the Ch'ing confidential memorial system), Li-shih tang-an (Historical Archives), 2, 1981, 131–2, 135Google Scholar, and Keng-sheng, Liu, ‘Yung-cheng tui wen-shu tang-an chih-tu ti kai-ke’ (Yung-cheng Emperor's reform of the upward communication and archival systems), Li-shih tang-an ), (Historical Archives) 3, 1982, 126–29.Google Scholar

30 See Spence, Ts'ao Yin and the K'ang-hsi Emperor, 225–6Google Scholar; Wu, Communication and imperial control in China, 36–7;Google ScholarChieh-hsien, Ch'en, ‘K'ang-hsi ch'ao tsou-che’, 131.Google Scholar

31 See Kung-chung tang K'ang-hsi ch'ao tsou-che, VI, 153Google Scholar, Memorial of Ho T'ien-p'ei , KH 55//1.

32 For instance, see Chi-fa, Chuang, ‘Ch'ing-ch'u tsou-che chih-tu ch'i-yüan k‘ao’, 18Google Scholar; Hsien-hua, Chu, ‘Chu-p'i tsou-che chih yu-lai chi ch'i-t‘a’, 18.Google Scholar

33 See , Yüeh-san. ‘Ch'ing-tai tsou-che ti hsin kuan-nien’, 4Google Scholar; Shih-k'uei, Shan, ‘Ch'ing-tai t'ipen chih-tu k‘ao’, 180–1Google Scholar; Fairbank, John K. and Teng, Ssu-yu, ‘On the types and uses of Ch'ing documents’, 6.Google Scholar

34 For the imperial order of 1749, see Ta-Ch'ing li-ch'ao shih-lu (Veritable records of successive reigns of the Ch'ing dynasty), (Taipei: Hua-lien ch'u-pan she 1964)Google Scholar, Reign, Ch'ien-lung, ch. 329, 33a–b, CL 13/11/26Google Scholar; also see n. 12. For the 1901 decree, see ibidReign, Kuang-hsü, ch. 486, 12a–b, KH, 27/8/15.Google Scholar

35 These specialists include Chu Chin-fu and his co-compilers of the K'ang-hsi ch'ao Han-wen chu-p'i tsou-che (see n. 17). For their view, see ibid., 1, 3.

36 For the official work, see Ta-Ch'ing hui-tien shih-li {Collected statutes and precedents of the Ch'ing dynasty (Shanghai: Commercial Press, 1908, 1220 ch.), ch. 13, lbGoogle Scholar. Several private studies adopt this date. For example, my Autocracy at work, 121Google Scholar; , Yang Ch'ich'iao, Yung-cheng ti chi ch'i mi-tsou chih-tu yen-chiu, 156Google Scholar; Te-yuan, Chü, ‘Ch'ing-tai t'i-tsou wenshu’, 225Google Scholar; Chih-ch'eng, Teng, Ku-tung so-chi _ch'iian-pien (Miscellanea of historical materials), (Peking: San-lien shu-tien 1955), 601.Google Scholar

37 Chin-fu, Chu, ‘Ch'ing-tai tsou-che chih-tu t'an-yüan’, 131Google Scholar; K'ang-hsi ch'ao Han-wen chu-p'i tsou-che, I, 2.Google Scholar

38 Ta-Ch'ing li-ch'ao shih-lu, Shun-chih Reign, ch. 102, 4b, SC 13/6/7; Hsi, Wang, Wang Wenching kung chi (Works of Wang Hsi) (n.p., 1707, 24 chüan, with Nien-p'u appended in 1 chüan, 10 vols.), Nien-p'u, 30b. For his English biography, see Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing period, 819.Google Scholar

39 See Shih-chia, Chi, ‘Ch'ing-tai t'i-tsou chih-tu', 86Google Scholar, and , Bartlett, Monarchs and ministers: the Grand Council in mid-Ch'ing China, 1723–1820 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), 4 and 49.Google Scholar

40 For those in favour of the first half of the K'ang-hsi era, see Hsien-hua, Chu, ‘Chu-p'i tsouche chin yu-lai’, 18Google Scholar; , Feng erh-k'ang, Yung-cheng chuan, 250–1Google Scholar; K'ang-hsi ch'ao Han-wen chu-p'I tsou-che, I, 2–3Google Scholar: Yung-cheng ch'ao Han-wen chu-p'i tsou-che, I, 1Google Scholar: Kessler, Lawrence D., K'ang-his and the consolidation of Ch'ing rule, 1661–1684 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), 130.Google Scholar

For historians supporting the second half of the K'ang-hsi era, see , Spence, Ts'ao Yin and the K'ang-Hsi Emperor, 225–6Google Scholar; , Wu, ‘The memorial system’, 40, and his Communication and imperial control in China, 36–7Google Scholar; Chin-fu, Chu, ‘Ch'ing-tai tsou-che chih-tu t'an-yüan’, 132.Google Scholar

41 Kung-chung tang K'ang-hsi ch'ao tsou-che, I, 1–4.Google Scholar

42 For the emperor's revelation, see Ta-Ch'ing li-ch'ao shih-lu, K'ang-hsi reign, ch. 113, 2a, K H 22/11/1; for his request for small-character memorials on local weather, see ibid., ch. 125, 3b, K H 25/3/3; for his interview of the two provincial governors, see ibid., ch. 133, 13a, K H 27/1/23.

43 See , Chao-lien, Hsiao-t'ing tsa-lu, I, ch. 2, 4bGoogle Scholar; Shih-hsi, Teng, ‘Ch'ing-tai pen-chang chih-tu’, 322Google Scholar. As mentioned earlier, the Chu-p'i yü-chih is a collection of select memorials submitted by officials during the Yung-cheng reign.

44 See my Autocracy at work, 120–1.

45 For number of the memorialists during the K'ang-hsi reign, see Yung-cheng ch'ao Han-wen chu-p'i tsou-che, I, 1. For other descriptions about the K'ang-hsi confidential memorials, see K'anghsi ch'ao Han-wen chu-p'i tsou-che, I, 5.

46 Yung-cheng ch'ao Han-wen chu-p'i tsou-che, I, 1–2.

47 For a concise biography of , Ho-shen, see Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing period, 288–90Google Scholar. For his demand for copies of the confidential memorials, see Kuo-shih lieh-chuan (Biographical series of Ch'ing history), (Taipei: Hsin Wen-feng ch'u-pan kung-ssu 1975, reprint of the Tung-fang, hsüeh-hui ed.), ch. 34, 1166.Google Scholar