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Syrian Urban Politics In The Tanzimat Period Between 1840 And 1861

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 December 2009

Moshe Maoz
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One of the major political and social results of the Ottoman Tanzimat in Syria and Palestine during the nineteenth century was the transformation whichit wrought upon the form of rule in the towns. The era of Turkish reform notonly gave a new shape and a different content to the struggle for authorityin the Syrian city between the Ottoman government and the local forces; italso contributed largely to the crystallization and consolidation of the urbanleadership of ‘ulamā’ and a'yan, by the establishment of local councils (Majlis)in the towns, which formed the main basis of future municipal life and autonomyin the area. The internal strife in the Syrian town, although acquiring a differentcharacter during the Tanzimat period, had its roots in the pre-reform era, whena fierce contest for power took place in many cities between various forces, of which the Turkish Pasha was only one. In the eighteenth century feudsoccurred in the big cities, either between the rival Janissary units, or betweenthem and the Ashrāf militia, the descendants of the Prophet. The Pashas withtheir own forces also took part in this struggle, usually siding with one factionand seeking to establish their control.1 Involved also in this struggle were thelocal ‘iulamā’, in whose hands was the administration of justice, and the a'yān, who controlled the civil administration in the towns.2

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Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies , Volume 29 , Issue 2 , June 1966 , pp. 277 - 301
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Copyright © School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 1966

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References

1 For a brief outline of this struggle, see Gibb, H. A. R. and Bowen, Harold, Islamic society and the West, I, Pt. 1, London, 1950, 218–21; a detailed study in Shimon Shamir, The 'Aẓn wālīs of Syria, 1724–1785 (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Princeton, 1960), 220 ff.Google Scholar

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12 al-Bāshā, op. cit., 36, 118, 127; al-Dibs, op. cit., VIII, 650; As'ad Manṣūr, Ta'rīkh al-Nāṣira, [Egypt], 1924, 72; Rustum, op. cit., 489, no. 3868; Spyridon, op. cit., 93, 97.

13 See Maoz, Moshe, The Tanzimat in Syria and Palestine, 1840–1861 (unpublished D.Phil. thesis, Oxford, 1966), Pt. II, ch. iGoogle Scholar

14 The following abbreviations are used in this and in subsequent notes for references to Ottoman documents: BA Istanbul, Basvekâlet Arşivi Cev. D Cevdet, DahiliyeCev. Z Cevdet, ZaptiyeIr. Ir D Iradeler, DahiliyeIr. Ie. H Iradeler, HariciyeIr. Ir.Mm. Iradeler, Meclis-i mahsusIr. Ir. Mv. Iradeler, Meclis-i valฤ BA, Ir. D, no. 2503, 25 Jumada I 1257; do., no. 6129, 11 Rabī' II 1262; do., no. 25797, 28 Rabī' I 1274; BA, Ir. Mv., no. 6498, 20 Jumādā I 1267; do., no. 10926, 25 ṣafar 1269; BA, Ir. H, no. 1884, 11 Rabī' II 1263; BA, Cev. D, no. 2094, 2 Dhū al-Hijja 1266; Taqvīm-i Vaqā'i' (the Ottoman official gazette), no. 238, 3 Muharram 1258; do., no. 242, 6 Jumādā I 1258.

15 BA, Ir. D, no. 4597, 9 Ramaḍān 1260; BA, Cev. D, no. 3351, 22 Rabī' II 1260; 'al-Bayṭār, Abd al-Razzāq, ḥilyat al-bashar fi ta'rīkh al-qarn al-thālith 'ashar, 3 vols., Damascus, 1961–1963, II, 9;Google Scholar ‘Abdullāh ḥabīb Nawfal, Kitāb tarājim ‘ulamā’ Tarablus al-fayha’ wa-'udabā'iha, Tripoli, 1929, 81, 122, 154–5, 258; al-Shaṭṭī, 37, 48, 57, 101–2, 136.Google Scholar

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17 BA, Ir. D, no. 11668, 6 Dhū al-Qa'da 1265; al-Bayṭār, op. cit., I, 464–9; 841; al-Shaṭṭī, op. cit., 209–10, 219, 234, 236; Taoutel, F. (ed.), Wathā'iq ta'rīkhiyya 'an ḥalab, 3 vols., Aleppo, 1958–1962, III, 47.Google Scholar

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19 See Maoz, op. cit., Pt. II, ch. i.

20 ibid., Pt. ll, ch. ii.

21 This provincial council was sometimes called also Dīwān al-Mashwara or Majlis al-Mashwara ‘Council of Consultation’; see al-'Awra, op. cit., 73.

22 Hourani, A., Arabic thought in the liberal age, London, 1962, 31–2; Shamir, op. cit., 219, 238; Anon.,iḥasr al-lithām 'an nakabāt al-shām, [Egypt], 1890, 31.Google Scholar

23 See, for example, al'Awra, op. cit., 72, 234.

24 Shamir, op. cit., 219–20; Anon., ḥasr al-lithām, 31.

25 Shamir, op. cit., 219–20; Barker, op. cit., I, 145, 148; Anon., ḥasr al-lithām, 26.

26 For details on the formation and the work of the Majlis under the Egyptians, see al-Bāshā, op. cit., 56; Guys, H., Esquisse de l'état politique et commercial de la Syrie, Paris, 1862, 48 ffGoogle Scholar.; Abūmacr;, Sulaymān'Izz al-Dīn, Ibrāhīm Bāshā fī Sūriyya, Beirut, 1929, 135–8; Rustum, op. cit., II 358, no. 3204; Kayat, 264.Google Scholar

27 Abū 'Izz al-Dīn, op. cit., 135–8; Rustum, op. cit., 68–9, no. 1535; II 359, no. 3207.

28 BA, Ir. D, no. 1867, 27 ṣafar 1257; FO 78/412, Werry to Ponsonby, 20 January 1840, encl. in Werry to Palmerston, No. 7, Aleppo, 20 February 1840.

29 Guys, op. cit., 48; Mishāqa, M., Muntakhabāt min al-jawāb 'alā iqtirāḥ al-alḥbāb, Beirut, 1955, 120; Rustum, op. cit., II, 383, no. 3359; III, 417, no. 5496.Google Scholar

30 FO 195/170, Young to Canning, No. 14, Jerusalem, 28 June 1841; FO 78/413, Young to Palmerston, No. 18, Jerusalem, 28 October 1840; Jaffa Sijill, order from 'Izzet Pasha registered on 27 Ramaḍān 1256.

31 Paris, Archives Nationales, Affaires ÉtrangÈres, Damas, I, No. 11, report by Menton, 13 March 1841; Paton, A. A., The modern Syrians, London, 1844, 206.Google Scholar

32 FO 195/170, Young to Canning, No. 14, Jerusalem, 28 June 1841; BA, Cev. D, no. 13973, 28 Rabī' I 1258; al-Bāshā, op. cit., 243.

33 BA, Ir. D, no. 1867, 27 Ṣafar 1257. Compare al-Bāshā, op. cit., 243.

34 BA, Maliyeden müdevver, no. 9061 dated 1257/1841; Taquim-i Vaqā'i,', no. 238, 3 Muharram 1258/February 1842; AE, Alep, I, No. 66, from Guys, 10 September 1841, citing an order by Selim Pasha, the Turkish ser'asker in Syria, dated 5 September 1841; according to Lutfi the decrees for the setting up of the Majlis in the provinces were promulgated in 1844. See Aḥmed Luṭfī, Ta'rīkh-i Luṭfī (8 vols., Istanbul, 1290–1328), VII, 91Google Scholar. R. H. Davison claims, furthermore, that the new Majlis system was first tried experimentally in 1845, in a few provinces and afterwards extended to the whole Empire. See Davison, R. H., Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856–1876, Princeton, 1963, 48.Google Scholar

35 FO 195/170, ‘Copy of Zeccharia Pacha's letter to the Musselim of Damascus’, in Werry to Ponsonby, Damascus, 5 March 1841; FO 78/800, Moore to Canning, No. 53, 26 October 1849, end. in Moore to Palmerston, No. 41, Beirut, 31 October 1849; Paton, op. cit., 269.

36 FO 78/836, circular from Vamiq Pasha wālī of Sidon of 8 Rabī' II 1266, in Moore to Palmerston, No. 15, Beirut, 1 March 1850; FO 78/872, Wood to Palmerston, No. 6, Damascus, 29 January 1851: AE, Alep, II, No. 5, from Geofroy, 7 May 1853; Urquhart, D., The Lebanon, 2 vols., London, 1860, II, 345–6.Google Scholar

37 See, for example, BA, Ir. D, no. 1867, 26 Ṣafar 1257; do., no. 21422/9, 5 Dhū al-Qa'cla 1272; BA, Ir. Mv., no. 9481, 3 Muḥarram 1269; do., no. 16685/1, 18 Muḥarram 1274; BA, Cev. Z, no. 2703, Kānūin II, 1277.

38 See, for example, FO 78/622, Wood to Canning, 31 May 1845, end. in Wood to Aberdeen, No. 21, Damascus, 24 June 1845; FO 78/1031, Moore to Clarendon, No. 43, Beirut, 28 September 1854; FO 78/1118, Wood to Redcliffe, No. 27, 28 June 1855, end. in Wood to Clarendon, No. 31, Damascus, 7 July 1855.

39 See, for instance, FO 195/302, Werry to Canning, No. 1, Aleppo, 2 February 1850; FO 78/1521, Finn to Bulwer, end. in Finn to Russell, No. 21, Jerusalem, 19 July 1860. Compare also al-Bayṭār, op. cit., II, 1134.

40 See, for instance, FO 78/499, Wood to Aberdeen, No. 74, Damascus, 6 October 1842; FO 195/207, Barker to Werry, Suedia, 15 January 1843, end. in Werry to Canning, No. 3, Aleppo, 11 February 1843; FO 78/962, Finn to Redcliffe, No. 26, 11 August 1853, end. in Finn to Clarendon, No. 13, Jerusalem, 12 August 1853; Finn, op. cit., 1, 321, 323, 397.

41 For example, see FO 78/801, Wood to Canning, No. 5, Damascus, 14 February 1849; FO 78/1031, statement from Consul Moore, 26 September 1854, encl. in Moore to Clarendon, No. 43, Beirut, 28 September 1854; FO 78/1521, Finn to Bulwer, encl. in Finn to Russell, No. 21, Jerusalem, 19 July 1860. Compare also al-Baytar, op. cit., II, 1134–5; al-Shaṭṭī, op. cit., 20, 32, 189, 202, 207, 227, 352; Nawfal, op. cit., 108.

42 BA, Maliyeden müdevver, no. 9061, dated 1257; FO 78/1452, Skene to Bulwer, No. 11, encl. in Skene to Malmesbury, No. 20, Aleppo, 31 March 1859; FO 78/1630, memo. by Vice-Consul White in Dufferin to Russell, No. 113, Beirut, 10 May 1861; compare also BA, Ir. Mv., no. 1036/1, 18 Dhū al-ḥijja 1259.

43 See BA, Ir. Mv., no. 5184, 19 Rabī' II 1266; FO 78/499, Moore to Palmerston, No. 43, Beirut, 19 June 1841.

44 See BA, Ir. D, no. 14609, 2 Dhū al-ḥijja 1267; BA, Ir. Mv., no. 18868/5, 21 Jumada II 1276; BA, Cev. Z, no. 4510, Nisān 1265; BA, Cev. D, no. 5153, 14 Dhū al-Qa'da 1275; FO 195/170, Young to Ponsonby, No. 14, Jerusalem, 28 June 1841.

45 BA, Ir. D, no. 1867, 27 Ṣafar 1257; do., no. 13183/4, 9 Dhū al-ḥijja 1266; BA, Ir. Mv., no. 9481, 3 Muḥarram 1269; do., no. 166851/1, 18 Muḥarram 1274; compare FO 78/622, Wood to Canning, 31 May 1845, encl. in Wood to Aberdeen, No. 21, Damascus, 24 June 1845.

46 BA, Ir. Mv., no. 17256/2, 29 Rabī' II 1274; do., no. 18868/7, 11 Jumada II 1276; BA, Cev. Z, no. 1811, 5 Ṣafar 1275.

47 FO 78/622, Wood to Canning, 31 May 1845, end. in Wood to Aberdeen, No. 21, Damascus, 24 June 1845.

48 FO 78/1521, Finn to Bulwer, end. in Finn to Russell, No. 21, Jerusalem, 19 July 1860; compare BA, Ir. D, no. 21422/7, Dhū al-ḥijja 1271; BA, Cev. Z, no. 2703, Kānūn II, 1277.

49 BA, Ir. Mm., no. 219, 25 Shawwāl 1271; BA, Cev. D, no. 7367, 17 Ramadan 1273; BA, Ir. Mv., no. 17321/20, 29 Rajab 1274; compare AE, Alep, I, No. 34, from Guys, 28 September 1845.

50 BA, Maliyeden müdevver, no. 9061, dated 1257, pp. 3–4, para. 9–14; Lutfi, op. cit., VI, 94. See also, FO 78/455, Rose to Palmerston, No. 30, Beirut, 3 May 1841; FO 195/210, Young to Canning, No. 2, Jerusalem, 22 August 1842; FO 195/291, Wood to Canning, Damascus, 22 November 1848; Urquhart, II, 161, 217.

51 Jaffa Sijill, no. 18, order from 17 Jumādā. II 1265; do., no. 13, 2 Jumādā II 1266; no. 13, awākhir Muharram 1268; FO 78/1388, Brant to Malmesbury, No. 25, Damascus, 7 May 1858; Finn, op. cit., II, 407.

52 Jaffa Sijill, no. 13, 25 Ramaḍān 1266; do., no. 18, 28 Shawwā1 1266; FO 78/1389, ‘A general report on Aleppo’, encl. in Skene to Malmesbury, No. 25, Aleppo, 17 June 1858; FO 78/872, Wood to Canning, encl. in Wood to Palmerston, No. 17, Damascus, 29 May 1851; AE, Jerusalem, No. 81, from Lantivy, 18 September 1844; Urquhart, op. cit., II, 161.

53 BA, Ir. D, no. 7691/28, 6 Jumāḍā, I 1263; BA, Ir. Mv., no. 9481, 3 Muḥarram 1269; BA, Cev. Z, no. 1811, 5 Ṣafar 1275; the Istanbul weekly Jericle-i Havadith, no. 695, 11 Shawwāl 1270; compare FO 78/622, Wood to Aberdeen, No. 3, Damascus, 14 January 1845.

54 BA, Ir. H, no. 2273/15, 23 Shawwāl 1263; FO 195/274, Rose to Cowley, Broumana (Lebanon), No. 46, 25 August 1847; FO 78/910, Werry to Rose, No. 25, 31 July 1852, end. in Werry to Malmesbury, No. 13, Aleppo, 13 August 1852; FO 78/1452, White to Skene, No. 22, Antioch, 27 October 1859, end. in Skene to Russell, No. 73, Aleppo, 29 October 1859.

55 See, for example, BA, Ir. Mv., no. 15905, 8 Muḥarram 1273; Sofia, Bulgarian Archives, NBVK/OR, no. 287/61, 15 Jumādā II 1258; FO 78/872, Wood to Canning, encl. in Wood to Palmerston, No. 17, Damascus, 29 May 1851.

56 BA, Ir. D, no. 2580/53, 15 Jumada I 1257; do., no. 14323/2, 27 Ṣafar 1267; Finn, op. cit., I, 13; Urquhart, op. cit., 163.

57 See, for example, BA, Ir. D, no. 2580/27, Jumada 1257; do., no. 13183/4, 9 Dhfi al-ḥijja 1266; FO 195/170, Werry to Ponsonby, Aleppo, 2 August 1841; FO 78/872, Wood to Canning, No. 12, 28 May 1851, encl. in Wood to Palmerston, No. 17, Damascus, 29 May 1851; FO 78/1388, Brant to Alison, No. 11, 23 February 1858, end. in Brant to Clarendon, No. 11, Damascus, 24 February 1858; AE, Damas, No. 22, from de Barrere, 15 August 1855; Finn, op. cit., II, 407; Urquhart, op. cit., II, 161–4. Compare also Engelhardt, E., La Turquie et le Tanzimat, 2 vols., Paris, 1882–1884, I, 108.Google Scholar

58 Engelhardt, op. cit., II, 290; Ahmed Lutfi, addlet, Istanbul, 1304, 154.

59 BA, Maliyeden miidevver, no. 9061, dated 1257; AE, Damas, I, No. 11, from Menton, 13 March 1841; Great Britain, Parliamentary Papers, Accounts and Papers, Lx, 1843, Pt. 2, No. 27, from Wood, Beirut, 9 September 1841; the legal procedure of the Majlis was to be based on the penal code of 1840 and later on those of 1851 and 1858. See Lutfi, Mir'āt, 128.

60 See examples in Jaffa Sijill, no. 18, order of 1 Ṣafar 1270; Ben-Zvi Institute, Jerusalem, Navon Collection, two Ottoman documents of 1 Rajab 1271 and 28 Dlifi al-Qa'da 1271 respectively.

61 Engelhardt, op. cit., I, 83; Luṭfī, Mir'āt, 131–2, 155; Ubicini, M. A., Letters on Turkey, 2 vols., London, 1856, I, 47–9, 170–1; Urquhart, op. cit., II, 217–22; compare Taqvīm-i Vaqā', no. 283, 3 Muḥarram 1258.Google Scholar

62 Examples in BA, Ir. D, no. 7692/21, 5 Rabī' II 1263; do., no. 21422/11, 16 Muḥarram 1272; BA, Ir. Mv., no. 16751/6, 27 Shawwāl 1274; BA, Cev. D, no. 5153, 14 Dhū al-Qa'da 1275; FO 78/1630, Dufferin to Russell, No. 113, Beirut, 10 May 1861. For the administrative division of Syria and Palestine in the Tanzimat period, see Maoz, op. cit., Pt. ch. i.

63 BA, Ir. Mv., no. 4386, 8 Dhū al-Qa'da 1265.

64 Examples in BA, Ir. D, no. 29302/15, 1 Dhū al-ḥijja 1275; BA, Cev. Z, no. 2703, Kānān II, 1277; BA, Ir. Mv., no. 14648, 27 Dhū al-ḥijja 1271; Taqvīm-i Vaqā', no. 238, 3 Muḥarram 1258. The office of mnadir zirā'a was more common in small provincial towns.65 BA, Ir. Mv., no. 4571, 23 Ṣafar 1266.

65 BA, Ir. Mv., no. 4571, 23 Safar 1266.

66 BA, Ir. Mv., no. 13697, 25 Rabī' I 1274; do., no. 14248, 7 Ramaḍān 1271; BA, Ir. Mm., no. 412/16, 11 Shawwal 1273.

67 See FO 78/1450, Brant to Bulwer, No. 1, 14 January 1859, encl. in Brant to Malmesbury, No. 2, Damascus, 15 January 1859; FO 78/1452, Skene to Bulwer, No. 11, end. in Skene to Malmesbury, No. 20, Aleppo, 31 March 1859; FO 78/1630, memo. by Vice-Consul White, end. in Dufferin to Russell, No. 113, Beirut, 10 May 1861; compare also BA, Ir. Mv., no. 15697, 21 Dhū al-ḥijja 1272; BA, Ir. Mm., no. 412/16, 11 Shawwāl 1273; al-Shaṭṭī, op. cit., II, 22; Anon., Rambles, 66; Urquhart, op. cit., 154 ff.

68 See above, pp. 279–80.

69 BA, Ir. Mv., no. 5220, 17 Rajab 1266; Urquhart, op. cit., 160–4; compare also Luṭfī, Mir'āt, 131–2; FO 78/622, Wood to Canning, encl. in Wood to Aberdeen, No. 41, Damascus, 4 December 1845. The president of the provincial council in Beirut was, however, a local notable by the name of 'Abd al-Fattāḥ. See BA, Ir. H, no. 2273/15, 23 Shawwāl 1263.

70 BA, Ir. D, no. 5970, 21 Ṣafar 1267; FO 78/871, Werry to Canning, No. 9, 3 April 1852, encl. in Werry to FO, No. 6, Aleppo, 10 April 1852.

71 BA, Cev. D, no. 5575, Rabī' II 1274; BA, Ir. Mv., no. 16700/12, 19 Rabī' I 1274; do., no. 17203/5, 16 Ṣafar 1274; FO 78/660A, Wood to Wellesley, No. 16, 2 December 1846, end. in Wood to Aberdeen, No. 17, Damascus, 7 December 1846; FO 78/799, Moore to Canning, No. 24, 25 May 1849, end. in Moore to Palmerston, No. 20, Beirut, 1 June 1849; FO 78/1219, Moore to Clarendon, No. 62, Beirut, 19 December 1856; FO 78/1298, Misk to Clarendon, No. 1, Damascus, 28 January 1857; AE, Jérusalem, IV, No. 92, from Botta, 7 July 1854; Finn, op. cit., I, 473–4; Paton, op. cit., 206; Taoutel, op. cit., III, 146.

72 See, for example, FO 195/226, Wood to Canning, No. 9, Damascus, 8 July 1846.

73 FO 195/302, Werry to Canning, No. 1, Aleppo, 2 February 1850; compare FO 78/962, Finn to Redcliffe, No. 26, 11 August 1853, end. in Finn to Clarendon, No. 13, Jerusalem, 12 August 1853; FO 78/1538, Skene to Bulwer, No. 27, encl. in Skene to Russell, No. 47, Aleppo, 4 August 1860; Finn, op. cit., I, 180.

74 See, for example, FO 78/872, Wood to Canning, No. 8, 23 April 1851, encl. in Wood to Palmerston, No. 13, Damascus, 28 April 1851; FO 78/1118, Wood to Clarendon, No. 18, Damascus, 14 April 1855; FO 78/1220, Barker to Redcliffe, No. 35, 15 September 1856, encl. in Barker to Clarendon, No. 15, Aleppo, 24 September 1856.

75 FO 78/761, Wood to Canning, No. 29, 24 November 1848, end. in Wood to Palmerston, No. 30, Damascus, 25 November 1848; FO 78/1630, Dufferin to Russell, No. 113, Beirut, 10 May 1861.

76 FO 195/292, Finn to Canning, No. 13, Jerusalem, 21 August 1850; FO 78/1452, Skene to Bulwer, separate encl. in Skene to Malmesbury, No. 42, Aleppo, 30 June 1859; Taoutel, op. cit., II, 100.

77 See, for instance, FO 195/194, Rose to Canning, No. 14, Beirut, 3 March 1842; FO 78/577, Rose to Aberdeen, No. 19, Beirut, 9 May 1844; FO 78/801, Wood to Palmerston, No. 9, Damascus, 28 April 1849; FO 78/1120, Finn to Redcliffe, No. 45, 1 December 1855, end. in Finn to Clarendon, No. 49, Jerusalem, 19 December 1855; FO 78/1389, Skene to Bulwer, No. 29, encl. in Skene to Malmesbury, No. 41, Aleppo, 4 September 1858; Barker, op. cit., I, 145; Finn, op. cit., I, 397.

78 FO 195/292, Finn to Canning, No. 8, Jerusalem, 1 March 1849; FO 78/1388, Brant to Alison, No. 11, 23 February 1858, encl. in Brant to Clarendon, No. 11, Damascus, 24 February 1858; AE, Damas, III, No. 22, from de Barrère, 25 April 1855.

79 Engelhardt, op. cit., 1, 108; see also FO 78/1538, Skene to Bulwer, No. 27, encl. in Skene to Russell, No. 47, Aleppo, 4 August 1860; AE, Alep, I, No. 41, from Guys, 27 June 1846; Anon., Rambles, 61 ff.; on the Majlis vices in other parts of the Empire, see Davison, op. cit., 48–9, 140–1.

80 Urquhart, op. cit., n, 164.

81 BA, Ir. D, no. 13183/6, 24 Dhū al-ḥijja 1266; FO 195/207, Werry to Canning, No. 2, Aleppo, 27 January 1844; FO 78/579, Wood to Aberdeen, No. 7, Damascus, 4 March 1844; see also FO 195/292, Finn to Canning, No. 18, Jerusalem, 26 November 1850; FO 78/871, Werry to Canning, No. 16, 5 April 1851, encl. in Werry to Palmerston, No. 3, Aleppo, 10 April 1851. At the same time, however, some ‘ulama;’ from Damascus took pains to incite the neighbouring mountaineers against recruitment. See FO 78/910, Wood to Malmesbury, No. 38, Damascus, 7 December 1852.

82 See Maoz, op. cit., Pt. III, ch. i.

83 FO 78/579, Wood to Aberdeen, No. 7, Damascus, 4 March 1844; FO 78/960, Werry to Rose, 29 January 1853, encl. in Werry to FO, No. 4, Aleppo, 3 February 1853; AE, Damas, No. 12, from Devoizy, 7 February 1844; AE, Alep, It, No. 5, from Geofroy, 7 May 1853; Taoutel, op. cit., in, 159.

84 See, for example, FO 78/579, Wood to Aberdeen, No. 7, Damascus, 4 March 1844; and Taoutel, op. cit., III, 159; also AE, Damas, 1, No. 13, from Devoizy, 6 March 1844; FO 78/1298, Misk to Clarendon, No. 15, Damascus, 28 September 1857; FO 78/1452, Skene to Bulwer, No. 16, 14 May 1859, end. in Skene to Bulwer, No. 28, Aleppo, 14 May 1859.

85 See, for example, FO 78/499, Wood to Aberdeen, No. 17, Damascus, 25 May 1843; FO 195/266, Wood to Canning, No. 9, Damascus, 8 July 1846; FO 78/872, Wood to Palmerston, No. 26, Damascus, 28 July 1851; AE, Alep, III, No. 3, from Geofroy, 23 June 1860; Taoutel, op. cit., II, 99–100.

86 FO 195/207, Moore to Canning, 27 January 1842, encl. in Moore to Aberdeen, No. 1, Beirut, 5 February 1842; FO 78/761, Wood to Palmerston, No. 10, Damascus, 4 March 1848; FO 78/871, Werry to Canning, No. 34, 23 August 1851, encl. in Werry to Palmerston, No. 13, Aleppo, 30 August 1851; FO 78/1219, Moore to Clarendon, No. 62, Beirut, 19 December 1856.

87 On the 1860 massacres in Damascus, see Maoz, op. cit., Pt. IV, ch. iii.

88 FO 78/498, Wood to Aberdeen, No. 20, Damascus, 23 February 1842; BA, Ir. Mv., no. 1036/1, 13 Dhū ḥijja 1259.

89 FO 78/579, Wood to Aberdeen, No. 15, Damascus, 8 May 1844.

90 AE, Damas, I, No. 15, 6 March 1844; BA, Ir. Mv., no. 967, 27 Jumādā I 1259; do., no. 978, 18 Jumādā II 1259; FO 195/351, Moore to Canning, No. 10, Beirut, 26 May 1851.

91 BA, Ir. D, no. 11287, 12 Ṣafar 1265; BA, Ir. Mv., no. 5220, 28 Shawwāl, 11266; BA, Cev. D, no. 786, 16 Rabī I 1267; AE, Jérusalem, No. 16, 10 November 1849; FO 195/331, Moore to Canning, No. 26, Beirut, 31 May 1849; FO 78/837, Calvert to Palmerston, No. 10, Damascus, 30 May 1850; FO 78/872, Wood to Palmerston, No. 6, Damascus, 29 January 1851; FO 78/871, Werry to Palmerston, No. 1, 28 February 1851. A similar measure, namely replacing notables by shopkeepers, took place in Jerusalem in 1860. See FO 78/1521, Finn to Bulwer, encl. in Finn to Russell, No. 21, Jerusalem, 19 July 1860.

92 BA, Ir. Mv., no. 18868/7, 11 Jumādā II 1276; BA, Cev. Z, no. 2703, Kānūn II, 1277; BA, Cev. D, no. 7367, 17 Ramaḍān 1273.

93 The text of the Hatt-i hüuml;maynun in Düstūr (Istanbul, 1871–1928), I, 7–14.

94 Compare Davison, op. cit., 108, 143; Karal, E. Z., Osmanli tarihi, V-VI, Ankara, 1947–1954, VI, 31.Google Scholar

95 FO 78/539, Werry to Bidwell, private, Aleppo, 2 June 1843; Paton, op. cit., 245.

96 Taqvīm-i Vaqā't, no. 238, 3 Muharram 1258; BA, Ir. D, no. 2860/5, 21 Rabī' I 1258; do., no. 13493'8, 29 Ṣafar 1267; Taoutel, op. cit., III, 26–8; Paton, op. cit., 247.

97 FO 78/444, Young to Ponsonby, No. 4, Jerusalem, 5 March 1841; FO 195/210, Young to Canning, No. 3, 23 January 1844; al-Bāshā, op. cit., 240.

98 FO 78/448, Werry to Ponsonby, Aleppo, 15 May 1848; FO 78/539, Werry to Rose, Aleppo, 1 May 1843, end. in Rose to Aberdeen, No. 42, Beirut, 6 May 1843; Barker, op. cit., it, 289; Paton, op. cit., 247.

99 Taqvīm-i Vaaqāi', no. 238, 3 Muḥarram 1258; BA, Ir. D, no. 2053, 25 Jumada I 1257; Taoutel, op. cit., III, 26–8; Paton, op. cit., 248.

100 A petition by inhabitants of the Pashalik of Aleppo, in BA, Ir. D, no. 13493/8, 29 Ṣafar 1267; FO 78/539, Werry to Bidwell, private, Aleppo, 2 June 1843; al-Ghazzī, Kāmil, Nahr al-dhahab fī ta'rīkh ḥalab, 3 vols., Aleppo, 1342, II 371.Google Scholar

101 BA, Ir. D, no. 13493/8, 29 Ṣafar 1267; al-Ghazzī, op. cit., II, 371.

102 FO 78/539, Werry to Bidwell, Aleppo, 2 June 1843; FO 195/207, Werry to Canning, No. 4, Aleppo, 4 April 1846.

103 FO 195/302, Werry to Canning, No. 8, Aleppo, 26 October 1850.

104 al-Ghazzī, op. cit., II 372; see also Qarā'lī, op. cit., 79–80; compare Barker, op. cit., II 290.

105 Compare FO 195/207, Werry to Canning, No. 2, Aleppo, 14 February 1846; FO 78/960, Werry to Rose, 29 January 1853, encl. in Werry to FO, No. 4, Aleppo, 3 February 1853; Taoutel, op. cit., III, 109.

106 A petition by Muslim notables of Aleppo in BA, Ir. D, no. 13268/6, 1 Muharram, 1267; FO 78/836, Werry to Canning, No. 7, Aleppo, 19 October 1850, encl. in Rose to Palmerston, No. 49, Beirut, 5 November 1850; Records of the Church Missionary Society, London, CM/063, from Sandreczki, No. 349, 'Ayntāb, 5 November 1850.

107 FO 78/836, Rose to Canning, No. 48, Beirut, 31 October 1850, encl. in Rose to Palmerston, No. 49, Beirut, 5 November 1850; compare also BA, Ir. D, no. 13268/6, 1 Muharram 1267; al-Ghazzī, op. cit., II 375.

108 In 1841, for example, only the military intervention of 'Abdullāh could save the ser'asker Zakariyyā Pasha from a rebellion by the government basht-bozuks, wherefore ‘The Government lost somewhat of its influence and power in the eyes of the inhabitants…’ FO 78/448, Werry to Ponsonby, Aleppo, 15 May 1841.

109 Compare Barker's suggestions claiming that the initiative for the plot did come from Yasuf Bey, who wanted in this way to ruin his rival, 'Abdullāh; Barker, op. cit., it, 290. See also FO 78/836, Werry to Canning, No. 43, Aleppo, 24 October 1850, end. in Rose to Palmerston, No. 49, Beirut, 5 November 1850.

110 al-Ghazzī, op. cit., II 373.

111 FO 78/836, Werry to Canning, No. 7, Aleppo, 19 October 1850. encl. in Rose to Palmerston, No. 49, Beirut, 5 November 1850.

112 For details of these events, see BA, Ir. D, no. 13185, 14 Dhū al-ḥijja 1266; do., no. 13493/8, 29 Ṣafer 1267; FO 195/302, Werry to Canning, No. 7, Aleppo, 19 October 1850; AE, Alep, No. 9, from de Lesseps, 29 October 1850; Barker, op. cit., II, 292 ff.; al-Ghazzī, op. cit., III, 372 ff.; Qara''1ī, op. cit., 79 ff.; Taoutel, op. cit., III, 143.

113 For full text of the rebels' conditions, see BA, Ir. D, no. 13185/14, encl. in 26 Dhū al-ḥijja1266; compare FO 78/836, Werry to Canning, No. 7, Aleppo, 19 October 1850, encl. in Rose to Palmerston, No. 49, Beirut, 5 November 1850; FO 195/302, Werry to Canning, No. 8, Aleppo, 26 October 1850; al-Ghazzī, op. cit., II, 376–7.

114 FO 195/302, Werry to Canning, No. 10, Aleppo, 8 November 1850; Barker, op. cit., II, 293–4; Qarā'lī, op. cit., 90–1.

115 BA, Mühimme def., no. 258, p. 1, orders dated awā'il and awākhir Muḥarram 1267; BA, Ir. D, no. 13268/6, 1 Muḥarram 1267.

116 Taqvīm-i Vaqā'i', no. 534, 6 Shawwāl 1267; al-Ghazzī, op. cit., II, 382; see also BA, Ir. D, no. 13483, 26 Ṣafar 1267; FO 78/871, Moore to Canning, No. 10, 26 May 1851, end. in Moore to Palmerston, No. 5, Beirut, 2 June 1851.

117 FO 78/871, Werry to Palmerston, No. 1, Aleppo, 28 February 1851; compare also Taoutel, op. cit., in, 146.

118 FO 78/871, Werry to Palmerston, No. 20, Aleppo, 20 December 1851; do., No. 21, 29 December 1851.

119 al-Ghazzī, op. cit., II, 382; see also Barker, op. cit., 295; TO 78/871, Werry to Canning, No. 19, 3 May 1851, end. in Werry to Palmerston, No. 6, Aleppo, 10 May 1851; BA, Ir. Mv., no. 13688, 23 Rabī' II 1271; do., no. 15351, 25 Rajab 1272.

120 Compare Taoutel, op. cit., in, 163.

121 FO 78/1389, Skene to Bulwer, No. 25, 20 August 1858, end. in Skene to Malmesbury, No. 38, Aleppo, 21 August 1858; FO 78/1538, same to same, No. 27, end. in Skene to Russell, No. 47, Aleppo, 4 August 1860.

122 FO 195/207, Barker to Werry, Suedia, 15 January 1843, end. in Werry to Canning, No. 3, Aleppo, 11 February 1843; FO 78/1219, Barker to Moore, Aleppo, 3 May 1856, end. in Moore to Clarendon, No. 22, Beirut, 12 May 1856; FO 78/1118, Werry to Redcliffe, No. 40, Aleppo, 30 December 1854, end. in Werry to Clarendon, No. 1, Aleppo, 3 January 1855; FO 78/1389, Sankey to Skene, Urfa, 24 March 1858, end. in Skene to Malmesbury, No. 23, Aleppo, 19 May 1858; compare also BA, Ir. D, no. 7691/27, 23 Rabī' II 1262.

123 On Gaza, see FO 78/1217, Finn to Clarendon, No. 55, Jerusalem, 1 September 1856; see also FO 78/1118, Werry to Redcliffe, No. 33, encl. in Werry to Clarendon, No. 25, Aleppo, 16 December 1855.

124 See, for example, FO 78/537, Rose to Aberdeen, No. 61, Beirut, 30 August 1843; FO 78/1297, Skene to Clarendon, No. 17, Aleppo, 26 August 1857.

125 FO 78/577, Rose to Aberdeen, No. 31, Beirut, 10 July 1844; FO 78/1118, Werry to Redcliffe, No. 40, Aleppo, 30 December 1854, encl. in Werry to Clarendon, No. 1, Aleppo, 3 January 1855.

126 Compare Sālnāme, Istanbul, 1263–77; Jerīde-i Havādith, no. 27, 22 Jumādā I 1277.

127 BA, Ir. H, no. 537/4, Jumada I 1257; BA, Ir. Mv., no. 3745, 24 Rabī' II 1265; do., no. 13626, 23 Rabī' I 1271; Jaffa Sijill, no. 13, 11 Shawwāl 1258; do., 10 Rabī' II 1266; Parliamentary Papers, Accounts and Papers, Lx, 1843, Pt. 1, No. 1, from Ponsonby, 23 May 1841; ManṢür, op. cit., 300.

128 BA, Cev. D, no. 10155, 29 Dhü al-Qa'da 1261; BA, Ir. Mv., no. 15905, 8 Muḥarram 1273; also Jaffa Sijill, no. 13, 11 Shawwāl 1258; do., 10 Rabī' II 1266; Finn, op. cit., I, 232–3, 296; al-Nimr, op. cit., 303.

129 See, for example, FO 78/576, Rose to Aberdeen, No. 11, Beirut, 9 April 1844; compare FO 78/913, Finn to Canning, No. 10, encl. in Finn to Malmesbury, No. 4, Jerusalem, 21 June 1852.

130 FO 78/1384, Finn to Clarendon, No. 3, Jerusalem, 19 January 1848.

131 FO 78/837, Wood to Palmerston, No. 2, Damascus, 27 February 1850; FO 78/913, Finn to Canning, No. 10, encl. in Finn to Malmesbury, No. 4, Jerusalem, 21 June 1852; FO 78/1217, Rogers to Finn, Haifa, 9 March 1856.

132 BA, Ir. Mv., no. 3920, 13 Rabī' II 1265; do., no. 12830, 10 Shawwāl 1270; do., no. 14706, 14 Muḥarram 1272; do., no. 17321/16, 14 Dhū al-Qa'da 1274; FO 78/801, Wood to Palmerston, No. 5, Damascus, 26 February 1849; Jaffa Sijill, no. 13, 11 Shawwāl 1258; do., 10 Rabī' II 1266.

133 FO 78/801, Wood to Palmerston, No. 9, Damascus, 28 April 1849; FO 78/1118, Werry to Redcliffe, No. 40, 30 December 1854, end. in Werry to Clarendon, No. 1, Aleppo, 3 June 1855.

134 FO 195/207, Barker to Werry, Suedia, 15 January 1843, encl. in Werry to Canning, No. 3, Aleppo, 11 February 1843; Neale, F. A., Eight years in Syria, Palestine and Asia Minor, 2 vols., London, 1851, II 30–1.Google Scholar

135 FO 195/207, same to same, 11 August 1843, encl. in Werry to Canning, No. 15, 25 August 1843.

136 FO 195/207, Barker to Werry, No. 11, Antioch, 8 September 1843, encl. in Werry to Canning, No. 17, Aleppo, 23 September 1843.

137 FO 195/207, Werry to Canning, No. 2, Aleppo, 27 January 1844.

138 FO 78/871, Werry to Canning, No. 25, 7 June 1851, encl. in Werry to Palmerston, No. 8, Aleppo, 10 June 1851; Neale, op. cit., II, 30–1.

139 BA, Ir. Mv., no. 15905, 8 Muharram 1273.

140 FO 78/537, Rose to Aberdeen, No. 61, Beirut, 30 August 1843; FO 78/871, Werry to Canning, No. 16, 5 April 1851, encl. in Werry to Palmerston, No. 3, Aleppo, 10 April 1851; AE, Alep, II, No. 1, 30 May 1851; Neale, op. cit., II, 30–1; Anon., Rambles, 133.

141 Engelhardt, op. cit., I, 107–8; MacFarlane, C., Turkey and its destiny, 2 vols., London, 1850, II, 38Google Scholar; Temperley, H., England and the Near East: the Crimea, London, 1936, 157–9.Google Scholar

142 al-Bayṭār, op. cit., II, 1135.